Miscellaneous Uses of Hyphenation in the English Language

Miscellaneous Uses of Hyphenation in the English Language

Hyphens are familiar to most writers as the small marks that hold compound words together: double-blind, peer-reviewed, time-limited and so on. In earlier discussions of hyphenation, attention is usually focused on compound adjectives, prefixes and suffixes, or the gradual evolution of compounds from open to hyphenated to closed forms. Yet in everyday academic and scientific writing, hyphens also perform a constellation of other, more specialised roles—roles that style guides often mention only briefly, if at all.

These “miscellaneous” uses can look minor compared with the big questions of whether to write e-mail or email. Nonetheless, they matter. Hyphens in number ranges, name-based terminology, compass points, abbreviated compounds, spelled-out words and URLs all affect how clearly and professionally a manuscript presents itself. Inconsistency or confusion at this level may not lead to outright rejection, but it can increase the amount of copyediting required and subtly undermine the impression of care and precision that authors usually want to convey.

This article outlines several of these smaller but important uses of the hyphen, with particular emphasis on how they arise in academic manuscripts. We will look at compound numbers and numerical ranges, names and eponyms, compass points and geographic expressions, suspended hyphenation, spelled-out words and stammering, and hyphens in web addresses. Together, these examples provide a practical guide to decisions that often surface late in the writing and formatting process.

Hyphens in Written-Out Numbers and Number Ranges

One of the most straightforward uses of the hyphen is in written-out compound numbers. When you write numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine as words, standard English practice is to join the tens and units with a hyphen:

• thirty-eight participants
• sixty-two questionnaires were returned
• ninety-four observations were recorded

This convention applies regardless of whether the number functions as a simple noun or as a modifier: thirty-eight vs. thirty-eight-item scale. Once the number is expressed in figures (38, 62, 94), the hyphen disappears, so it is only relevant when the number is written out in full.

A related but more technical area is the expression of number ranges. Many authors instinctively type a hyphen between numbers in a range—for example, pp. 21-46, 1, 4-7, 10-13. This is understandable, especially on keyboards where the hyphen and the en rule (also called en dash) share the same physical key. Strictly speaking, however, the more typographically correct symbol for inclusive number ranges is the en rule:

• pp. 21–46 (pages 21 through 46 inclusive)
• participants aged 18–25
• references 4–7, 10–13

The en rule is slightly longer than a hyphen and is traditionally used to mean “up to and including” in ranges. Many publishers still follow this distinction closely. If a journal’s author guidelines specify that hyphens should be used for ranges, you should, of course, follow that instruction. Otherwise, using en rules for inclusive ranges is good practice.

There is one important exception: non-inclusive numbers such as telephone numbers use hyphens, not en rules. For example:

• 1-800-798-4672
• +44-1223-123-456

Here the hyphens do not indicate a continuous range; instead, they simply separate components within a single sequence. In these contexts, the hyphen is correct and the en rule would look out of place.

Hyphens, En Rules and Names

Another area where hyphens play a specialised role is in names—both personal names and the names of tests, laws and other eponyms used in academic writing.

Double-Barrelled Surnames

When one individual has a double surname, the two elements are normally joined with a hyphen:

• Professor Smith-Jones presented the keynote address.
• Dr García-López conducted the statistical analyses.

Here, the hyphen signals that Smith-Jones or García-López is a single, unified surname belonging to one person. In reference lists, indexing and citation, this hyphenated surname should be treated as a unit.

Name-Based Compounds and En Rules

When two names combine to form the label of a test, method or concept, however, typographical convention often favours the en rule rather than the hyphen. For example:

• Mann–Whitney test
• Newman–Keuls procedure
• Einstein–Rosen bridge

In such compounds, the en rule functions like a slightly more formal connector, signalling a partnership or joint origin rather than a fused unit. In adjectival forms, a hyphen is sometimes used instead of an en rule—for example, Marxist-Leninist theory—and some publishers apply the hyphen consistently in these contexts for simplicity.

When the first element cannot stand alone as a word, a hyphen is preferred even in name-based compounds, as in Sino-Japanese relations. Here, Sino is a combining form, not a freestanding word like Mann or Whitney, so a hyphen is the natural choice.

Maintaining Distinctions in Complex Name Compounds

Occasionally, you may encounter names or labels that mix already hyphenated surnames with en-rule compounds. In these cases, it is essential to maintain the distinction between hyphen and en rule to avoid confusion. For example:

• Johnson–Smith-Jones

In this form, the en rule indicates a relationship between two people: one named Johnson and one named Smith-Jones. If you were to write Johnson-Smith-Jones (hyphens only) or Johnson–Smith–Jones (en rules only), it would be unclear whether you are referring to two people, three people, or a triple-barrelled surname. Such constructions may be rare, but when they arise (for example, in acknowledgements, historical references or genealogical notes), precise punctuation prevents misinterpretation.

Compass Points and Geographic Expressions

Hyphens are also used in expressions related to direction and geography, although here regional variation between British and American English becomes especially noticeable.

Compass Points

In British English, compound compass points are often hyphenated:

• north-west, north-east
• south-west, south-east

In American English, the same terms are typically written as closed compounds:

• northwest, northeast, southwest, southeast

When an additional element is added (for example, to express a more precise bearing), a hyphen appears in both varieties:

• north-north-west (BrE)
• south-southeast (AmE, usually as a single word, but still conceptually “south-south-east”)

Wind names derived from compass points are generally closed and unhyphenated: a southwesterly wind, a northeasterly gale. Once again, consistency with the chosen variety of English and the journal’s house style is more important than enforcing absolute rules.

Regional Names and Capitalisation

Geographical names based on compass points also show variation in hyphenation and spacing. In British English, it is common to see an open compound such as South East Asia, while American English tends to favour Southeast Asia as a closed form. In both cases, hyphens are typically avoided when the components are capitalised proper nouns. “South-East Asia” with a hyphen is much less common in contemporary usage, though it may appear in older texts or specific institutional names.

For academic authors, the key is to adopt one form appropriate to the variety of English in use (BrE or AmE) and maintain it consistently throughout the manuscript.

Suspended Hyphenation: Omitting a Shared Element

Hyphens can also be used to indicate that part of a compound word is shared by two or more adjacent expressions. This practice is known as suspended hyphenation or suspended compounds and can help avoid repetition when similar terms occur together.

Consider the pair:

• left-handed and right-handed participants

This can be shortened, without loss of meaning, to:

• left- and right-handed participants

Here, the hyphen after left- signals that the shared element handed should be mentally supplied. Other examples include:

• upper- and lowercase letters
• pre- and post-intervention scores
• short-, medium- and long-term outcomes

This technique is useful for compactness, but it has limits. If the resulting phrase becomes difficult to parse or potentially ambiguous, it is usually better to write the compounds out in full. It should also never be applied to the final item alone; a phrase like “uppercase and lower-” is incorrect because the reader is not given the full compound at least once in the sequence.

Crucially, suspended hyphenation applies when a shared element comes at the end of the compounds. It does not apply when the shared element comes at the beginning. For instance, “overindulged and -paid” is not acceptable. In such cases, the initial shared element must usually be repeated: overindulged and overpaid.

Spelled-Out Words and Stammering

Hyphens also appear in informal but occasionally relevant contexts in academic writing: spelled-out words and representations of stammering or hesitation in quoted material.

Spelling Out Words

When you spell out a word letter by letter—for example, to clarify an unfamiliar place name—a hyphen between each letter is a clear and readable option:

• The town is called Kirkcudbright – that is K-i-r-k-c-u-d-b-r-i-g-h-t.

Hyphens prevent the letters from appearing as a single indecipherable string and signal to the reader that they should be read as individual units. This can be useful in qualitative research, historical documents or ethnographic notes where unusual names need to be represented precisely.

Stammering, Hesitation and Broken Speech

Hyphens can also be used to indicate stammering or broken speech in dialogue or transcribed interviews:

• M-m-me? I’m t-t-terrified.
• W-we w-went t-to the c-clinic.

In academic writing, such representations appear mainly in verbatim quotations from participants or literary sources. While they should be used sparingly and respectfully, hyphens in this role help convey the original rhythm and character of the speech when that detail is analytically relevant.

Hyphens in URLs and Web Addresses

Finally, hyphens are common in web addresses, including journal, publisher and institutional domains. For example:

• https://example-project-site.org/
• https://my-research-blog.com/

In URLs, the hyphen is simply one of several permitted characters and is often used to separate meaningful components within a domain or path. When citing or sharing URLs in manuscripts, it is crucial not to confuse the hyphen with other characters such as the underscore (_) or the tilde (~). A single misplaced character can render a link unusable.

Because URLs can be long and visually complex, many style guides recommend presenting them in a monospaced font or embedding them as clickable links in online formats. Whatever the typographical treatment, authors should ensure that hyphens in web addresses are reproduced exactly as they appear in the original.

Conclusion

Hyphens may be small, but their roles in written English stretch well beyond the familiar territory of compound adjectives. In academic and scientific writing, hyphens appear in written-out numbers, phone numbers, name-based tests, double-barrelled surnames, compass points, regional names, suspended compounds, spelled-out words, stammered dialogue and URLs. Each of these uses carries its own conventions and potential pitfalls.

By learning when a hyphen is appropriate, when an en rule is preferable and when it is better to write terms out in full, authors can handle these details with confidence. The result is not only typographical correctness, but also a more polished, coherent and professional manuscript. In a publishing environment where many submissions are technically sound, attention to such small but significant elements of style can quietly strengthen the impression your work makes on editors, reviewers and readers.

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