Summary
Two Latin abbreviations still matter in scholarly writing—etc. and et al.—but they are easy to misuse. Etc. (“and the rest/and so forth”) lists things, belongs chiefly in parentheses or ancillary material, and should follow at least two items; avoid it after “such as/e.g.” or at the end of a list of people. Punctuate according to your serial-comma policy and never write “&c” unless faithfully transcribing an older source.
Et al. means “and others” and refers to people (usually authors/editors). Do not add a full stop after et; most styles take one after al. Use italics or roman, and deploy commas, ampersands, or “and” exactly as your target style guide requires. Use et al. only when guidelines say to (e.g., 3+, 4+, or 6+ authors), and keep usage consistent between in-text citations and reference lists.
Bottom line: Choose etc. for non-exhaustive lists of things; choose et al. for abbreviated lists of people in citations. Observe publisher guidance on punctuation, italics, and thresholds, and apply the rules consistently across your manuscript.
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Two Latin Abbreviations Frequently Used in Scholarly Writing: etc. and et al.
Tips on How to Get Your Research Published
Latin abbreviations once crowded the margins of academic prose. Many have faded from everyday research writing, yet two survivors—etc. and et al.—remain common and commonly mishandled. Their meanings are simple enough, but questions about placement, punctuation, threshold rules, and tone persist. This practical guide explains exactly when and how to use each abbreviation so your manuscript reads as accurate, disciplined, and publication-ready.
1) Etc. — Meaning, Register, and Placement
Meaning. Etc. is short for et cetera, “and the rest/and so forth/and other things.” It indicates that your list is representative, not exhaustive.
Register. In formal prose, many publishers prefer English equivalents (“and so on,” “and the like”) in running text and reserve etc. for parentheses, notes, tables, and figure captions. Always check your target journal’s preferences.
Placement in lists. Use etc. only after at least two items (some guides recommend three) so the reader can infer the pattern:
- Good: “pens, pencils, etc.” / “peaches, pears, apples, etc.”
- Avoid: “peaches, etc.” (pattern is unclear)
1.1 Punctuation around etc.
- Serial comma policy: If you use the Oxford/serial comma before and, also use a comma before etc. (“pens, pencils, etc.”). If not, omit it (“pens, pencils etc.”).
- Final punctuation: If etc. ends a sentence, it takes only one full stop: “We measured length, mass, resistance, etc.” (not “etc..”).
- Mid-sentence commas: When the sentence continues after etc., add a comma if your style calls for one: “We sampled oak, birch, spruce, etc., in triplicate.”
1.2 What etc. should not do
- Not after “such as,” “e.g.,” “including.” Those already imply incompleteness: write “such as pens, pencils” (not “such as pens, pencils, etc.”).
- Not for people. Use words like “and others” or, in citations, et al.
- Not with ampersand. Avoid “&c.” unless reproducing older sources verbatim.
- Not as a crutch. Replace with a precise category where possible: “non-human primates” beats “macaques, marmosets, etc.”
1.3 Style and typography for etc.
Etc. appears in roman (upright) type in most styles. Italicising it is unusual outside linguistic examples. Maintain a non-breaking tie before sentence-ending etc. if your typesetting supports it to prevent awkward line breaks.
2) Et al. — Meaning, Thresholds, and Style Variants
Meaning. Et al. abbreviates Latin et alii/aliae/alia (“and others”) and refers to additional people beyond those named, typically in citations and reference lists.
Punctuation. Never put a full stop after et (it is a complete word). Most styles add a full stop after al.; some omit it (“et al”). Follow your target guide.
Italics vs roman. Some styles (e.g., older Chicago practice) italicise Latin abbreviations (et al.); others set them in roman (APA). Adopt one approach consistently.
2.1 How many authors trigger et al.?
Thresholds vary by style and by location (in-text vs reference list). Examples (always verify current editions):
- APA (7th): In-text: use et al. for works with three or more authors from the first citation; Reference list: up to 20 authors listed before using an ellipsis.
- MLA (9th): In-text: use et al. for three or more authors; Works Cited: list first author + et al.
- Chicago/Turabian: Notes/bibliography systems vary; author-date often uses et al. for four+ authors in text. Check the chosen variant.
2.2 Grammar with et al.
- Verb agreement: Treat as plural in running text: “Nguyen et al. report …”
- Possessive: Add a possessive to the entire unit when needed: “Nguyen et al.’s findings …” (styles vary on the apostrophe position; be consistent).
- Spacing: Keep a (non-breaking) space between et and al. to avoid line breaks: “et al.”
2.3 Where et al. belongs
- In-text citations: “(Nguyen et al., 2022)” or “Nguyen et al. (2022) show …”
- Reference list entries: Rules vary: some styles retain full author lists; others use et al. in the entry itself.
- Running text (non-citation): Permitted when naming authors of a study: “In their trial, Alvarez et al. compared …”
3) Side-by-Side: Quick Rules
| Use this… | For… | Example | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| etc. | Incomplete lists of things | “temperature, salinity, pH, etc.” | Avoid after “such as/e.g.” and avoid for people. |
| et al. | Abbreviating lists of people (authors) | “Garcia et al. (2021)” | No full stop after et; style-dependent italics/period after al. |
4) Examples in Context
4.1 Etc. done right
- “The kit includes spatulas, forceps, scalpels, etc. (see Appendix B).”
- “We analysed oak, birch, spruce, etc., across four plots.”
4.2 Etc. to avoid
- “We recruited students, faculty, etc.” → Prefer “students, faculty, and staff” or “students and other university personnel.”
- “The sample contains flavonoids (e.g., catechin, quercetin, etc.).” → Drop etc. after “e.g.”
4.3 Et al.—in-text vs reference list
- In-text: “As reported by Zhang et al. (2020) …”
- Parenthetical: “(Zhang et al., 2020; Patel, 2021)”
- Reference list (style-dependent): “Zhang, H., Patel, R., et al. (2020) …” or full author list per guide.
5) Commas, Conjunctions, and Ampersands
In citation systems that use an ampersand before the final author (e.g., APA in parentheses), et al. replaces the middle authors entirely:
- “(Smith, Jones, & Patel, 2019)” becomes “(Smith et al., 2019)” when the threshold is met.
In narrative citations (APA), use “and” rather than “&”: “Smith et al. report …” not “Smith & et al. …”. Never combine an ampersand with et al.
6) Consistency Checklist (Editorial Quality)
- Thresholds aligned: Same et al. rules applied in text and in references per the guide.
- Typography consistent: Either italics or roman for et al. everywhere; same spacing (et al.).
- Serial comma logic: Before etc. matches overall list policy.
- No redundancy: No “such as … etc.” or “including … etc.”.
- People vs things: etc. never stands for people; et al. never stands for objects.
7) Common Errors and Fixes
| Mistake | Problematic | Better | Why |
|---|---|---|---|
| Redundant marker | “such as pens, pencils, etc.” | “such as pens and pencils” | “Such as” already signals incompleteness. |
| People with etc. | “We interviewed Smith, Khan, etc.” | “We interviewed Smith, Khan, and others” / “Smith et al.” | Etc. is for things, not people. |
| Double period | “… methods, etc..” | “… methods, etc.” | Use a single full stop at the end. |
| No space in et al. | “etal.” | “et al.” | Et and al. are separate words. |
| Full stop after et | “et. al.” | “et al.” | Et is not abbreviated. |
| Wrong agreement | “Lee et al. argues …” | “Lee et al. argue …” | Treat as plural subject. |
8) Discipline-Specific Notes
- STEM: Heavy multi-author papers make et al. essential. Ensure in-text and bibliography thresholds follow the journal’s exact rules—preprint servers may differ from final journals.
- Humanities: Chicago/Turabian note-bibliography often favours full author lists in bibliographies; et al. may appear mainly in footnotes. Check the edition in use.
- Law: Legal citation (e.g., OSCOLA, Bluebook) has distinct conventions; do not assume APA/MLA logic applies.
- Medicine: Some journals require listing up to six authors then “et al.”; others list many more—always verify current Instructions for Authors.
9) When to Prefer Words over Abbreviations
Readable alternatives in running text: Replace etc. with “and so on” or “and the like” when the style guide discourages Latin abbreviations in the main prose. Replace et al. with “and colleagues” when you are not giving a formal citation.
In abstracts or lay summaries, fully written English often improves accessibility and machine readability (important for indexing and text mining). Reserve abbreviations for citations, notes, or cramped tables.
10) Copy-Editing Workflow (Five-Minute Audit)
- Search for “etc.” Remove any instance following “such as/e.g./including.” Ensure at least two preceding items. Align commas with your serial-comma policy.
- Search for “et al” variants (et al, et. al., etal). Standardise to your guide’s preferred form (e.g., roman et al. with non-breaking space and final period).
- Check thresholds. Confirm the number of authors that triggers et al. in text and in references; reconcile discrepancies.
- Verify agreement. Make “X et al. show …” plural in running text.
- Global consistency. Decide italic vs roman once and apply globally; same for comma placement around et al.
11) FAQ
Q: Can I use etc. in figure captions? A: Common and acceptable, especially for space; ensure the pattern is clear from the first two or three items.
Q: Should I italicise et al.? A: Follow the target style; many modern guides (e.g., APA 7th) use roman.
Q: Where does the comma go with et al.? A: Depends on style. APA uses a comma before the year in parenthetical citations: “(Kim et al., 2023).”
Q: Can I write “et al..” at the end of a sentence? A: No—only one full stop. If a citation ends the sentence, the period after al. doubles as the sentence period.
12) Conclusion: Precision that Signals Professionalism
Used with care, etc. and et al. are small markers of large discipline. Etc. helps you abbreviate obvious lists of things without wasting space; et al. keeps citations succinct while acknowledging collaborative authorship. The details—spaces and stops, thresholds and typography—matter because they telegraph respect for readers, for sources, and for the journal’s standards. If you anchor usage in the simple distinction (things vs people), observe the publisher’s rules, and apply them consistently, your manuscript will read cleaner, cite cleaner, and sail more smoothly through peer review.
