PhD Theses or Dissertations: Footnotes-Notes for Documentation

PhD Theses or Dissertations: Footnotes-Notes for Documentation

One of the most critical aspects of writing a PhD thesis or dissertation in the humanities is how you document your sources. While the sciences and social sciences commonly use author–date or numerical referencing systems (such as APA, MLA, or Vancouver), the humanities often rely on a more traditional and versatile approach: footnotes or endnotes. This style, typically associated with the Chicago Manual of Style’s Notes and Bibliography method, remains the preferred referencing system in disciplines such as history, philosophy, literature, and art history.

Using notes for documentation not only gives your writing a sense of scholarly authority but also allows you to include richer contextual information about your sources. However, the system demands careful attention to detail and consistency. This guide explains how to use footnotes and endnotes effectively in your PhD thesis or dissertation, offering examples and professional tips to help you master this classical yet powerful method of academic citation.

1. Why Use Footnotes or Endnotes?

Footnotes (notes appearing at the bottom of each page) and endnotes (notes collected at the end of each chapter or document) serve a dual purpose in academic writing. They provide documentation for your sources and, when used judiciously, allow space for commentary or elaboration that might interrupt the flow of your main text.

In the humanities, where research often draws from diverse and complex sources—archival documents, letters, manuscripts, editions, translations, images, and nontraditional materials—the footnote system excels because it can accommodate multiple layers of citation with precision and flexibility. Author–date systems, in contrast, can oversimplify or obscure nuanced information about editions, translators, or publication details, all of which may be vital in historical or literary analysis.

Using notes also maintains the elegance of your main text. Instead of cluttering the body of your dissertation with parentheses and abbreviations, you can move all references into notes, giving your prose a clean, uninterrupted flow.

2. Formatting Notes: The Basics

In the Chicago Notes and Bibliography system, footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout your document. Each note corresponds to a superscript number placed in your text at the point where a citation is required—usually after punctuation, and always following quotation marks.

Notes can appear either as footnotes at the bottom of each page or as endnotes collected at the end of a chapter or the entire thesis. Your university’s style guide may specify which format to use, so always check your department’s requirements before you begin formatting your dissertation.

In both cases, the note itself should include a superscript number, followed by the full citation on first reference and a shortened form in subsequent citations. Chicago style generally uses a standard font size (10- or 11-point) for notes, single-spaced, with a hanging indent after the first line.

3. First and Subsequent References

The first time you cite a source in your thesis, provide full bibliographic details. This should include the author’s full name, the title of the work, the publication information (place, publisher, and year), and the page number(s) if applicable. For example:

1 Phillipa Hardman, “Presenting the Text: Pictorial Tradition in Fifteenth-Century Manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales,” in Chaucer Illustrated: Five Hundred Years of the Canterbury Tales in Pictures, ed. William K. Finley and Joseph Rosenblum (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2003), 38.

For any subsequent citations of the same source, you use a shortened version, including only the author’s surname, a shortened title (if needed), and the page number. For instance:

2 Hardman, “Presenting the Text,” 38.

This approach makes your notes more efficient and readable. Readers can easily locate full bibliographic information from the first reference, while you maintain smooth documentation throughout the text.

4. Multiple References in a Single Note

Sometimes, a single footnote or endnote needs to include multiple references—especially when you are comparing different scholars’ perspectives or citing multiple sources for the same claim. In these cases, references are usually separated by semicolons and arranged alphabetically by the authors’ surnames, though alternative ordering (for example, prioritising a quoted source) is acceptable if justified by context.

3 Hardman, “Presenting the Text,” 69; Hilmo, “Power of Images,” 158; Kerby-Fulton, “Professional Readers,” 223; Olson, “Romancing the Book,” 102.

Each entry should follow the same shortened citation format. Consistency is crucial: the reader should be able to recognise every citation immediately as part of a uniform system.

5. Including Page Ranges and Quotation Pages

When referencing chapters or journal articles, full page ranges (e.g., 37–72) are typically provided in the bibliography, but not necessarily in the note itself. However, when your dissertation does not include a separate bibliography—a rare but permissible choice in some humanities departments—you can add page ranges directly in the note.

For example, if you are quoting from page 38 of a chapter spanning pages 37–72, you can modify your first citation to read:

1 Phillipa Hardman, “Presenting the Text: Pictorial Tradition in Fifteenth-Century Manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales,” in Chaucer Illustrated: Five Hundred Years of the Canterbury Tales in Pictures, ed. William K. Finley and Joseph Rosenblum (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2003), 37–72, at 38.

This style makes your reference self-contained—particularly useful when no bibliography appears at the end of your thesis or dissertation.

6. Footnotes vs. Endnotes: Which Should You Use?

The choice between footnotes and endnotes often depends on your university’s regulations or your discipline’s traditions. Footnotes keep references visible on the same page as the text, which helps readers verify sources immediately. Endnotes, on the other hand, declutter pages and improve layout aesthetics but require readers to turn pages or scroll frequently.

In long-form projects such as theses, footnotes are often preferred for their immediacy and accessibility. However, endnotes may be ideal for chapters that include a high volume of notes or long commentary. Whatever your choice, remain consistent throughout your dissertation.

7. Using Notes for Commentary and Explanation

Beyond citations, footnotes and endnotes can also serve as a space for providing supplementary commentary. In humanities writing, it’s common to include brief discussions or contextual remarks in notes—perhaps to clarify translation choices, reference archival sources, or acknowledge scholarly debates. For example:

4 For an alternative interpretation of Chaucer’s illustrations, see Bowers, “Visual Literacy in the Middle Ages,” 214–19.

However, balance is key. Footnotes overloaded with commentary can distract the reader from your main argument. Keep them concise and relevant, and avoid using notes as a substitute for proper integration of material in the main text.

8. Creating a Bibliography to Accompany Notes

Although Chicago’s notes-and-bibliography style does not require a full list of references, most universities still expect a comprehensive bibliography. This provides readers with a single, convenient overview of all your cited materials.

Your bibliography should list sources alphabetically by authors’ surnames, omitting page numbers and using a hanging indent format. Each entry should include the same details as your full notes but reformatted according to Chicago’s guidelines. For example:

Hardman, Phillipa. “Presenting the Text: Pictorial Tradition in Fifteenth-Century Manuscripts of the Canterbury Tales.” In Chaucer Illustrated: Five Hundred Years of the Canterbury Tales in Pictures, edited by William K. Finley and Joseph Rosenblum, 37–72. New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2003.

Including both a bibliography and notes gives your work the best of both worlds: concise, elegant in-text documentation and a detailed resource for future researchers.

9. Consistency, Accuracy, and Proofreading

Few aspects of academic writing reflect professionalism more clearly than consistent, accurate referencing. Pay attention to every comma, semicolon, and italicised title. Even minor inconsistencies can disrupt credibility. When proofreading, ensure that every footnote number corresponds correctly to its in-text reference and that all sources appear in your bibliography (if applicable).

Many students find citation management software such as EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley invaluable for managing notes and bibliographic entries. These tools can automatically generate Chicago-style footnotes, saving time and reducing human error. However, always verify automated output manually; citation software is helpful but not infallible.

10. Best Practices for Using Notes in a Dissertation

• Be consistent: Choose either footnotes or endnotes and stick with that choice throughout your document.
• Follow your institution’s guidelines: Some universities provide templates or specify particular formatting rules for Chicago-style notes.
• Use concise language: Keep citations precise; avoid unnecessary repetition or commentary.
• Verify all details: Cross-check every title, date, and page number against the original source.
• Proofread carefully: Errors in notes are easy to miss but can undermine your thesis’s scholarly authority.

Conclusion: Notes as Tools of Scholarly Precision

Footnotes and endnotes are far more than mere technical requirements—they are markers of scholarly precision and professionalism. They demonstrate your engagement with existing research, your respect for intellectual property, and your ability to present complex information clearly. In the humanities, where interpretation and context are vital, the notes system remains the gold standard for documentation.

By mastering this elegant method of citation, you give your readers not only the information they need to trace your sources but also a window into the broader intellectual landscape surrounding your work. A well-documented dissertation signals both academic integrity and intellectual maturity—qualities that distinguish exceptional scholarship from the ordinary.

At Proof-Reading-Service.com, our expert editors ensure that your thesis or dissertation meets the highest academic standards. We specialise in Chicago-style referencing, footnotes, endnotes, and bibliographic consistency—so your writing remains both elegant and precise from the first note to the final page.