Hyphens in Research Writing: Rules for Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs

Hyphens in Research Writing: Rules for Nouns, Adjectives and Verbs

Hyphens are small punctuation marks with outsized importance in academic and scientific communication. Used correctly, they clarify meaning, prevent ambiguity and guide readers through complex compound constructions. Used incorrectly—or inconsistently—they confuse readers, disrupt argumentation and reflect poorly on the professionalism of a manuscript. Many editors note that hyphenation errors are among the most common reasons they request revisions from authors, especially those writing for publication in English as a second language.

This comprehensive guide explains the principles of hyphenation in formal academic writing, offering detailed explanations, examples and strategies for using hyphens consistently and effectively. Although hyphens sometimes appear arbitrary, their use follows identifiable patterns that, once understood, can significantly strengthen the clarity and credibility of your writing.

1. Understanding Compound Forms: Open, Hyphenated and Closed

Compound words in English—whether nouns, adjectives or verbs—appears in three forms:

• open compounds: two words (air stream, decision making)
• hyphenated compounds: air-stream, decision-making
• closed compounds: one word (airstream, healthcare)

Some compounds transition through these forms over time. A new term may begin as “cell phone,” then shift to “cell-phone,” and eventually become “cellphone.” Other compounds remain variable indefinitely, and dictionaries may list more than one correct form.

Because academic writing prioritises consistency, choose one form and use it throughout your manuscript—even if multiple forms are technically acceptable.

2. Hyphens in Compound Nouns

Compound nouns may be hyphenated, closed or open, depending on evolving usage and regional conventions. In general:

• American English tends to close compounds (airstream).
• British English tends to favour open forms (air stream).
• Hyphens are preferred only when needed for clarity.

For example:

• decision making (normally open)
• quick decision-making (hyphenation improves clarity)

Adding an adjective before some compound nouns creates ambiguity if no hyphen is used. “Quick decision making” can be misread as quick decisions rather than quick making of decisions. The hyphen clarifies meaning.

3. Hyphens in Compound Adjectives

Hyphenation is most common—and most important—when compounds function as adjectives before nouns.

Compare the following:

• a low level executive (unclear)
• a low-level executive (clear, correct)

Hyphens prevent misreading by linking the compound elements into a single adjective modifying the noun.

3.1 When compound adjectives require hyphens

Use a hyphen when:

• the compound contains an adjective + noun (“second-language research”),
• the compound contains a number + noun (“five-stage process”),
• clarity depends on the hyphen (“small-animal clinic” ≠ “small animal clinic”).

Hyphens are standard when the compound appears before the noun. After the noun, many compounds open:

• The method is well known.
• The results were up to date.

3.2 When compound adjectives do not require hyphens

Do not hyphenate:

• proper names (“North American studies,” “Great Britain archives”)
• compounds using adverbs ending in –ly (“highly qualified researcher,” not “highly-qualified”)
• compounds where hyphens add no clarity (“student nurse programme”)

However, when an –ly adverb is the second word, hyphenation is needed:

• a user-friendly website
• a cost-efficient solution

4. Hyphens in Compound Verbs

Hyphens appear in verbs formed from two-word noun compounds:

• noun: cross reference
• verb: to cross-reference

Similarly:

• noun: double check
• verb: to double-check

Conversely, nouns formed from phrasal verbs often become hyphenated or closed:

• verb: to back up
• noun: backup or back-up

When in doubt, check dictionaries and maintain consistent usage throughout your manuscript.

5. Hyphens for Clarity and Avoiding Ambiguity

Sometimes hyphens are not required grammatically but improve clarity significantly:

• re-cover (cover again) vs recover (return to health)
• re-sign (sign again) vs resign (quit)

Misused hyphens—or omitted hyphens—can drastically change meaning. In academic writing, where precision is essential, hyphens often prevent misinterpretation.

6. Hyphenation Before vs After the Noun

Placement matters. As a rule:

• Before the noun → hyphenate
• After the noun → open (no hyphen)

Examples:

• up-to-date research → the research was up to date
• well-known theory → the theory is well known

But idiomatic expressions remain hyphenated in all positions:

• Her analysis was matter-of-fact.

7. Exceptions to General Hyphenation Rules

Hyphens are never used in:

• capitalised compounds (“British Library manuscripts”)
• scientific compound terms (“sodium chloride solution”)
• adjective + –ly adverb compounds (“carefully engineered system”)

Hyphens are used in:

• adverb + participle when the adverb does not end in –ly (“well-known results”)
• compounds where the second word ends in –ly (“user-friendly interface”)

For scientific writing, check discipline-specific conventions—some fields hyphenate terms that others leave open.

8. Hyphens in Technical and Scientific Contexts

Scientific writing includes many multi-part technical terms. Apply hyphens to improve readability when:

• combining Greek or Latin roots creates ambiguity,
• long modifier strings precede a noun,
• terms include prefixes such as pre-, post-, anti- that might cause misreading (“re-analysis,” “anti-inflammatory”).

But many technical prefixes are closed unless clarity demands otherwise:

• postdoctoral
• pretest
• multimodal

9. Consistency Is Essential in Publication-Ready Writing

One of the biggest red flags for journal editors is inconsistent hyphenation. If your manuscript alternates between “decision making,” “decision-making” and “decisionmaking,” you signal poor editorial control.

To ensure consistency:

• choose one form for recurring compounds,
• create a personal hyphenation list for your manuscript,
• consult one dictionary (not multiple)
• follow your target journal’s style guide.

Remember: journals often differ. APA, Chicago, AMA and MLA all treat hyphens in unique ways.

10. Conclusion

Hyphens are essential punctuation marks that significantly influence clarity, accuracy and readability in academic and scientific writing. Whether forming compound nouns, adjectives, or verbs, hyphens help ensure your meaning is precise and your arguments are understood exactly as intended. Mastering hyphenation rules strengthens your scholarly voice and increases your manuscript’s chances of acceptance during editorial review.

If you want expert help refining hyphenation, academic style and clarity in your research manuscripts or journal articles, our journal article editing service and manuscript editing service can support you throughout the publication process.