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LindaOlsonD.Phil.EnglishandRelatedLiteratureON-SCREENPROOFREADINGAHandbookforEditorsofAcademicandScientificArticles CopyrightAllrightsarereserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedstoredinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanswhetherelectronicormechanicalviaphotocopyingorrecordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorpermissionofthepublisher.2014 2014LindaOlsonD.Phil.EnglishandRelatedLiteratureON-SCREENPROOFREADINGAHandbookforEditorsofAcademicandScientificArticles Thegoodcopy-editorisararecreatureanintelligentreaderandatactfulandsensitivecriticsomeonewhocaresenoughaboutperfectionofdetailtospendtimecheckingsmallpointsofconsistencyinsomeoneelsesworkbuthasthegoodjudgementnottowastetimeorantagonizetheauthorbymakingunnecessarychanges.Butcheretal.2006p.4 iiiCONTENTS............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................Preface1Chapter1EstablishingaWorkspaceManagingFilesandEditingOn-Screen31.1FindingSpaceandaComputerofOnesOwn51.2ReceivingandOrganisingElectronicFiles91.3MarkingRevisionsandCommunicatingwiththeAuthor151.3.1TrackingChangesinMicrosoftWord171.3.2UsingWordsCommentFunction23Chapter2ThePartsofaScholarlyArticleGuidelinesandGoodSense302.1PreliminaryMatter332.2TheBodyofthePaper402.3TablesandFigures482.4FinalandSupplementaryMatter50Chapter3ReferencesandReferencingStylesCheckingCorrectingandCommenting573.1ObservingJournalGuidelinesAccuratelyThoroughlyConsistentlyandWisely583.1.1TheBasicComponentsofCompleteBibliographicalReferences643.1.2AuthorDateandOtherReferencesBasedonAuthorNames773.1.3NumericalReferences883.1.4FootnoteandEndnoteReferences933.2RecognisingandPolishingtheAuthorsOwnSystemofReferences100 Chapter4StylisticandEditorialDetailsChoicesandNecessities1054.1BritishversusAmericanSpelling1054.2AttendingtoCapitalisationandSpecialFonts1114.2.1CapitalsforNamesTitlesandOtherElements1114.2.2SpecialFontsforEmphasisItalicandBold1194.3SortingOutNumbersHyphensandDashes1254.3.1UsingandFormattingNumbersAppropriately1274.3.2HyphenationEnRulesandEmRules1434.4SomeCommonProblemswithPunctuationandHowToResolveThem1574.4.1CommasSemicolonsandColonsErrorsandPreferences1584.4.2StopsApostrophesQuestionandExclamationMarksBracketsandSlashes175Chapter5LanguageWritingStyleLogicalStructureandQuotationsWhatMustShouldandShouldntBeDone1955.1CorrectingandImprovingStyleandStructureSoundLanguageandLogic1965.1.1WordUseSyntaxandSentenceStructure1985.1.2ParagraphsandSections2145.2SpecialisedTerminologyJargonandAbbreviationsTheNeedforDefinition2265.2.1Discipline-SpecificLanguage2265.2.2AbbreviatingEffectively231CONTENTSiv............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. vCONTENTS5.3QuotationsPresentationIntegrationandAccuracy2575.3.1FormattingandAcknowledgingQuotations2585.3.2IntegratingQuotationsPunctuationSentenceStructureandArgument2685.3.3AccuracyandAlterationsinQuotedMaterial2755.3.4QuotingandTranslatingLanguagesOtherthanEnglish288Chapter6TablesFiguresAppendicesandListsTheRightInformationintheRightPlace2956.1TablesAccurateDataataGlance2966.2FiguresVisualisingandClarifyingContent3146.3ListsandAppendicesFunctionalSeparation323Chapter7ProducingaCleanCopyforJournalPublication3357.1ReviewingChangesandCommentsintheEditedDocument3377.2CreatingandProofreadingtheCleanVersionbesidetheTrackedVersion3417.3ReturningtheCleanandTrackedFilestotheAuthor352AppendixIBasicStructureofFoldersandFilesforManagingProofreadingJobs355AppendixIINumberedHeadingsandSubheadingsforanArticleonRomanticLiterature358References360................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. viPleasenotethatthisHandbookalsoincludesanumberofProof-Reading-Service.comPRSTips.Theseofferadviceonavarietyofpracticalmattersandappearinblueboxes.ACkNOWLEDGEMENTSIammostgratefultoJudithEverardandRenTetznerfortheirhelpfulandinsightfulcommentsonanearlierversionofthisHandbook.IwouldalsoliketothankJoeJohnsonforprovidinginformationonLaTeX. 1TraditionalwrittenresourcesforproofreadersandcopyeditorsofEnglishtextstendtofocusontheproductionofbooksalreadyacceptedbyapublisherandmostoftenassumeareaderresponsibleforvariousaspectsofabooksgradualprogressthroughpublication.Usuallysuchacopyeditorwillhavethetimeandopportunitytogettoknoweachbookwellanditsauthoratleastviaemailortelephonetherearegenerallyopportunitiesforconsultationanddecisionmakingwithboththeauthorandthepublisher.Althoughsuchresourcesareincrediblyhelpfultoanyproofreaderoreditorinsearchofcorrectinformationaboutstyleandformattingwiththeexceptionofanoccasionalchaptertheydonotaddresstheon-screeneditingofdocumentspriortotheirsubmissiontoapublisherinwhichmanyoftodaysfreelanceproofreadersareinvolved.Oftensuchlong-distanceproofreadingmeanselectronicallyeditingdocumentswrittenbyauthorsfromallovertheworldandmanyofthesedocumentsareacademicandscientificarticlesdestinedforpublicationinscholarlyjournals.WritingofthiskinddemandsoftheproofreadernotjustexactitudeandanexcellentunderstandingoftheEnglishlanguagebutafamiliaritywithscholarlyconventionsinawiderangeofacademicdisciplines.YettheturnoverperiodforsuchworkcanbeveryshortindeedconsultationwiththeauthorisoftenimpossibleandtheamountoftimeandeffortinvestedissignificantespeciallyiftheauthorsEnglishisproblematicorthestylesandformatappropriatetoscholarlypapersaremissingorinconsistent.Thesechallengesandotherscancomplicateandlengthenthelabourneededtoprovideaprofessionalserviceyetcarefulattentiontoeverydetailisalwaysrequiredwheneditingacademicandscientificworksocuttingcornersisneveradvisable.PREFACE 2Manyproofreaderswhostriveforexcellenceintheirworkwillthereforewelcomesomepracticalandaccessibleadvicegearedspecificallytotheon-screeneditingofscholarlyarticlesinpreparationforjournalpublication.ThosewhoareconsideringproofreadingasacareerorjustbeginningtoproofreadprofessionallyaswellasthosewhohavebeenproofreadingformanyyearswillIhopefindthisHandbookinformativeandencouragingbothaguidethroughtheprocessofproofreadingarticlesthoroughlyandsuccessfullyandaresourcetoconsultregardingthemanydecisionsinvolvedinperfectingthelanguageandpresentationofacademicandscientificwriting.Thebookishoweverneitheracomprehensivetreatmentofon-screenproofreadingnoradetailedapproachtothescholarlyandeditorialconventionsprevalentinanyonediscipline.Insteaditaimstoaddressthetopicsandproblemsofparticularconcerntoproofreadersengagedintheon-screeneditingofarticlesdestinedforpublicationinavarietyoffieldsbyfocussingonsoundscholarlypracticesthemethodspresentedinthebeststyleguidesandtheexpectationsandrequirementsofacademicandscientificjournals.TheHandbookisthereforesuitableforusewhileproofreadingarticlesinawiderangeofdisciplinesincludingtheSocialPhysicalandBiologicalSciencestheHumanitiesMedicineEngineeringMathematicsEconomicsLawandManagement.PREFACE 3WhereveryoumaybeinyourproofreadingcareerwellsettledwithyearsofexperiencejustbeginningapermanentortemporarypositionorsimplyconsideringproofreadingasanoptionyouwillnodoubtbeabletosympathiseviamemoryorimaginationwiththeperspectiveIadoptherethatofafreelanceproofreaderentrustedwiththatfirstchallengingpieceoftext.Suchachallengecancomeassomethingofasurpriseandoftenconstitutesacrucialdo-or-diemomentthatcanmakeorbreakaproofreadingcareersoitsbesttoapproachitcalmlyandprofessionallyusingsoundpracticesandprocedures.Letssayforinstancethatyouvejustpassedtheassessmenttestforacompanythathiresfreelanceproofreaderstoeditthearticlesofacademicandscientificauthorsinpreparationforpublicationinscholarlyjournalsandyouvereceivedyourfirstdocumentviaemail.ItswritteninMicrosoftWordhereaftersimplyWordaprogramyouknowquitewellfromhavinguseditmanytimestowriteyourownworkthestyleguidehasbeenprovidedthoughitsthatoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationAPAasystemyoudontyetknowandthepaperisduebackinbothtrackedandcleanversionswithin24hours.Youwouldhavelikedalittlemoretimeforyourfirstjoballthemorebecauseyouknowyourproofreadingwillbeassessedbythecompanyaswellasbytheauthorbutyouunderstandthatthequickturnoverisatestofsortstodeterminewhetheryouhavewhatittakestoproducequalityworkinashortperiodoftime.CHAPTER1Chapter1EstablishingaWorkspaceManagingFilesandEditingOn-Screen 4Yourenotastrangertosuchdeadlinesandgenerallyworkwellunderpressuresoyoucouldnthaveimaginedadocumentofabout3500wordspresentingachallengeatallundertheseconditionsyoucouldnthaveimagineditthatisuntilyoutookalookatthepaper.EvenaquickscanhasrevealedthreeerrorsinthetitlealonereferencesbothincompleteandrecordedinajumbleofstylestablesandpassagesinalanguageyoudontimmediatelyrecogniseandanopeningsentencethatsimplydoesntmakeanysenseintheabstractorthepaperDespitewhatmightbenaturalinstinctsinsuchasituationthefirstthingtorememberisDONTPANICnoticethelargefriendlylettersAdams2009p.6.Itsimplywonthelpandneitherwilltearingoutyourhairscreamingcryingorgivingupsoearlyinthegame.Allemotionalresponsesofthissortwillsimplydistractyoufromthetaskathandandrenderyourmindlesscapableoffocussingeffectivelyontheworkthatneedstobedone.Thatyoucaninfactachievewhatsnecessaryisalreadyclearafterallyouvemanagedtoconvinceaproofreadingserviceoraprofessionalwriterifyouredealingdirectlywiththeauthorthatyourecapableandqualifiedandnowyoualsohaveamorerealisticideaoftheworkthatliesahead.Secondlywelcometothewonderfulworldoffreelanceon-screenproofreadingItsamultidisciplinaryprofessionalworldthatintroducesyoutonewoftencutting-edgeideasandinformationeverydayandwhileitcertainlyhasitsfairshareofmundanerepetitiveactivitiesitcanalsobeincrediblyinterestingandevenanadventureaslongasyoukeepfreshinyourmindtheoldadagethatthekeydifferencebetweenanordealandanadventureisattitude.Itisnteasyofcoursetobecomequicklyfamiliarwithnewandcomplicatedmaterialthoroughlyenoughtomakeeditorialdecisionsofallkindsforit.ExcellenceinproofreadingrequiresintelligencecarefulreadingcriticalthinkinginsightpatienceCHAPTER1 5sensitivityobjectivityprecisiondiscernmentpersistenceaneyeforbothdetailandthelargerpictureexceptionallanguageskillsanddespitewhatmanymightthinkahealthydoseofimagination.Byremainingpositivepreparingyourselfadequatelyandfollowingsomebasicproceduresandprinciplesyoucanallowthepersonalqualitiesthatledyoutoproofreadinginthefirstplacetoshineandproducearecipeforsuccess.Sotakeadeepbreathfreeyourmindofdistractionsanddivein.1.1FindingSpaceandaComputerofOnesOwnAlthoughsettingupanappropriateworkspacemayseemtooelementaryorobvioustomentionitisinfactsocentraltosuccessinfreelanceproofreadingthatitshouldbeaprimaryconsideration.Mostfreelanceon-screenproofreadingtakesplaceintheproofreadershomeandwhilethiscanbeawonderfullyproductiveworkingenvironmentitcanalsobecomeawebofunconquerabledistractions.Noiseandactivitycausedbychildrenroommatesneighboursandevenanunderstandingpartnercanbreaktheproofreadersconcentrationandpullhimorherawayfromtheworkathandandsinceshortproofreadingjobsareoftentuckedinbetweentheotherdemandsoflifeitcanbedifficultenoughtofindadequatetimeforthemwithoutadditionaldistractionsduringthemomentsandhoursthatareavailable.Thesinglemosteffectivesolutiontothisproblemistosetupanappropriateworkspaceinyourhomeandleteveryoneinthehouseoratleastthoseofanagetounderstandknowthatwhenyouareinthatspaceyouarenottobedisturbedunlessthereisanemergency.EstablishingtherightschedulecanbeincrediblyhelpfulthoughitmaytakesometrialanderrorandexplainingyourworkCHAPTER1 6situationtofamilymemberswillgenerallyearnwillingcooperation.Goingtoyourworkspaceshouldideallybemuchlikegoingouttoworkandthebestwaytopreventminormattersfromdisturbingthecloseandsustainedconcentrationmanyscholarlyarticleswilldemandistoremaininyourworkspaceexactlyasyouwouldremainatyourdeskwereyouworkinginanofficeorlibrary.Youdontwanttobetiedtoyourcomputerdeskofcourseandshortbreaksformovingaroundarenecessaryandcanbeincrediblyrefreshingbutrememberthanevenaquicktriptothekitchenforacoffeecanbereadbyothersinthehouseholdasasignthatyouarefreetotalkandplayanditcanalsobecomeanopportunitytobeginthinkingaboutwhatshouldbemadefordinnerorhowmuchtheovenneedscleaningorthelawnneedsmowing.Yourworkspaceshouldofcoursealsobedesignedasmuchaspossibleinawaythatenablesyoutoworkefficientlyduringthosehoursyouhavetodedicatetoproofreading.Workingon-screenmeansthatyouwontneedalotofdeskspacebutyouwillneedarelativelyfastandcompletelyreliablecomputerwithascreenofadecentsizeacomputerthatisoperatingslowlyorthathaslittlerandomaccessmemorygenerallyknownasRAMmayhavetroubleskeepingupwithcomplexlayoutsandtrackedchangesinwordprocessingprogramswhileasmallscreenwillmakeitverydifficulttoseedetailsinthedocumentsyouworkonpainfultoreadandwritemarginalcommentsthatarenecessarilysmallerthanthemaintextandimpossibletoworkinasplit-screenmodewithsaythereferencelistforapaperinawindowononesideandthein-textreferencesinawindowontheotherforcomparativechecking.Youcansavebothyoureyesfromstrainandyourtimebyusingalargescreenofahighqualityorbyusingtwoscreensifpossiblewhethertheyareattachedtooneortwoseparatecomputers.AcomfortablechairsetattherightheightandangleisalsoessentialespeciallyifCHAPTER1 7youtendtoworkforextendedperiodsoftime.Ifyouexperienceproblemswithyourbackneckorwristswhileworkingatthecomputerhoweverproofreadingforshortersessionswithbreaksbetweenwillbewiserandwhileagoodmouseisavitalpieceofequipmentforproofreadingusingthekeyboardinsteadofthemouseasmuchaspossiblewillalsobehelpful.IdeallyyourworkspacewillhaveadoorthatyoucanshuttoseparateyoufromthenoiseandactivityelsewhereinyourhomebutevenamakeshiftcurtainorblanketatoolIveusedtoturnadiningroomintoaworkspacecanworkwondersifeveryoneinthehomerespectsitastheywouldacloseddoor.Curtainscertainlyarentsoundproofhoweverandneitherarealotofinteriordoorssoyoumayneedtoimposesomerulesaboutnoiseinnearbyareasofthehousewhileyoureworkingunlessofcourseyoureoneofthoseluckypeoplewhocanconcentrateonworkwhilesurroundedbyauditorychaos.Musiccanprovehelpfulespeciallywhatmightbecalledsoftbackgroundmusicbydrowningoutothermoredistractingnoisesandmanypeoplefindclassicalmusicforinstanceinspirationalwhileworking.PersonallyIdontfindmusicorothernoisestoodistractingwhileImreadingforpleasureandsometimeswhenImwritingbutwhenitcomestothecriticalreadingofcomplexanddetailedscholarlymaterialforthepurposeofeditingitforotherscholarsbothmycomprehensionandaccuracytendtosufferwhenthereismusicinthebackgroundespeciallyiftheauthorsEnglishisunclearortherearemanyinconsistenciesrequiringdetailedattention.Finallyyourcomputerwillneedalltheprogramsandfeaturesrequiredforyourwork.YouwillalmostcertainlyneedarelativelynewversionofWordsincemostacademicandscientificauthorsworkinthatprogramandyoullalsoneedtoinstallanyothersoftwareyoumaybeusingforeditingthearticlesyoullbeproofreading.TheLaTeXCHAPTER1 8documentpreparationsystemforinstanceisusedtoformatandstructurescientificandothertechnicalarticlesinavarietyofdisciplinessuchasmathematicscomputersciencephysicspoliticalscienceandeconomicsaswellasdocumentsfeaturingcomplexmultilingualmaterialincludingChineseSanskritandArabic.ProofreadingsuchpapersissomewhatmorespecialisedthanworkinginWordwhichmeansthatitgenerallyearnsahigherrateofpaysoifyourefamiliarwithLaTeXyoumaywellwanttoworkwithit.YourcomputerwillalsoneedareliableconnectiontotheinternetforreceivingandreturningdocumentswhetheryoudothatviadropboxesfiletransferprotocolusuallycalledFTPemailattachmentsoranyotherelectronicmeans.Youllalsofindtheinternetextremelyhelpfulforlookingupwordsandconceptsasyouworkparticularlywhenyouredealingwithatopicthatisnotyourspecialty.Notonlywilltheinternetprovideyouwithaccesstootherpapersandabstractsinawidevarietyoffieldsanddisciplinesbutmanydictionariesarenowavailableonlineagoodnumberofthemwithopenfreeaccessandthesecanbeextremelyhelpfulsupplementstowhateverprinteddictionariesyoumayownespeciallywhentryingtotrackdownspellingvariantsandunusualworduses.Sinceyouwillverylikelybevisitingagreatmanywebsitesofvariouskindstocheckinformationup-to-dateantivirussoftwareisessential.Ifyousetupyourworkspaceeffectivelywithanappropriatecomputerandinternetaccessthedictionariesstyleguidesandotherresourcesyoullneedclosebyandperhapsevenalittledecorationthatinspiresyouyoumayfindthatitbecomesnotjustaplaceinwhichtogetyourworkdoneasefficientlyaspossiblebutaretreatofsortsthatallowsyoutoescapefromotherdemandsuponyourtimeclearyourmindofmundaneworriesandfocuswithpleasureuponthechallengesoftheworkyouenjoy.CHAPTER1 9PRSTipAsIexplainbelowtheadviceprovidedinthischapterandthroughoutthisbookfocusesoneditingarticlesinWordproofreaderswhoworkorwishtoworkondocumentspreparedviaLaTeXwillprobablywanttoseekadditionaladviceelsewhere.TheLaTeXCompanionbyMittelbachetal.2004theLaTeXUsersGuideandReferenceManualbyLamport1994andtheGuidetoLaTeXbyKopkaandDaly2003willnodoubtproveespeciallyusefulandthelearnbydoingapproachofKottwitzsLaTeXBeginnersGuide2011maybeparticularlyhelpfulforthosenewtoLaTeX.Therearemanyotherprintandebookresourcesonthetopichoweversoacarefulsearchontheinternetorinthecatalogueofauniversitylibrarywillbewellworththetimeinvested.AnumberofresourcesareavailableonlineaswellincludingtheLaTeXprojectsiteathttplatex-project.organdtheComprehensiveTeXArchiveNetworkCTANathttpctan.orgbothofwhichprovideinformationonobtainingLaTeXfromCTANasfreesoftware.SmallerwebsitescanalsobeusefulforintroductoryinformationD.R.WilkinssGettingStartedwithLaTeXforinstanceathttpwww.maths.tcd.iedwilkinsLaTeXPrimerascansomefilesavailableviatheinternete.g.M.A.PortersAHitchhikersGuidetoLaTexathttpwww.chaosbook.orgFAQlala.pdf.1.2ReceivingandOrganisingElectronicFilesInthemostbasicsensereceivingdocumentsonlineisbotheasyandstraightforward.YoudownloadadocumentcopyitintoanappropriatefolderonyourcomputerandworkonitbutinpracticetherearealotCHAPTER1 10ofothermatterstoconsider.IfforinstanceyoureusingdropboxesorFTPtotransferfilesyoumayneedtocreateanaccounttoaccessthedocumentsyoullbeproofreading.IfontheotherhandyouregoingtobereceivingdocumentsprimarilybyemailamethodcommonlyusedbyproofreadingservicesandauthorsyoullneedtouseanemailsystemthatallowslargeattachmentsGooglemailmorecommonlyknownasgmailisagoodchoicebecauseitallowsattachmentsofupto25megabytesinsizesoitwonthinderyoufromreceivingarticleswithalargenumberofcomplextablesandfigures.Toensurethatyouremailprogramdoesnotsendproofreadingjobstothespamfolderincludeallrelevantaddressesinyouraddressbook.Bothyouremailprogramandyourantivirussoftwareshouldscanattachmentsforvirusesbeforeyoudownloadandopenthem.Youwontneedtoworryaboutthisquiteasmuchifyoureworkingthroughacompanythatinitiallyreceivesthefilesfromauthorsandthenpassesthemontoyoubecausethescanningprocesswilllikelytakeplacebeforethefileissentontoyouandvirusesinthefilesofacademicandscientificauthorsarecomparativelyrarebuttheydooccurandthisisdefinitelyasituationinwhichitsbettertobesafethansorry.Aviruscanrenderyourcomputerinoperableuntilthethreatisremovedandlosingyourcomputerwhenyouhavepaperstoproofreadandreturnwithinatighttimeframecanbecatastrophic.Onceyouvedownloadedthedocumentyoullbeworkingonitsimportanttofileitappropriatelyonyourcomputer.TherearemanyeffectivewaysoforganisingcomputerfilesbutwhateverapproachyouchoosetouseitshouldprioritisethemostimportantaspectsofthedocumentsandenableyoutofindandsavefilesquicklyandaccuratelyseeAppendixIforastructuredoutlineofthesystemIdescribehere.IfyourefreelancingthroughacompanyyoucoulduseamasterfoldernamedwiththecompanysnameifyoureworkingdirectlyforauthorsthismasterfoldercouldsimplybecalledProofreadingorAcademicCHAPTER1 11ProofreadingandifyoureworkingformorethanonecompanyorforauthorsdirectlyaswellasforaproofreadingserviceyoullprobablywanttoaddsubfoldersforeachcompanyandperhapsanotherforAuthors.WithinthesefolderssubfolderstoorganiseyourproofreadingjobsbytheyearProofreading2014Proofreading2015etc.areagoodideaespeciallyfortaxpurposesandifyouworkonalotofdocumentsyoumaywanttosubdivideeachyearfurtherwithfoldersforeachmonthProofreadingJanuary2014ProofreadingFebruary2014etc..Withinthefolderforeachmonthyouwouldthencreatefoldersfortheindividualjobsyoucompleteinthatmonthonefolderforeachjob.Sincedeadlinesaremoreoftenthannotacentralconcernforproofreaderscreatingafoldernamedwiththedatewhenadocumentisduefollowedbyashortformoftheauthorsnameorthepapertitleisausefulmethod.SoletssayyouvejustreceivedadocumentlabelledJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014anditneedstobeproofreadandreturnedby3January2014.Createanewfolderandnameit3Jan2014_Jonesor3Jan2014_Structuralorsomethingsimilarandsavethedocumentintothatfolder.Ifyouusethesamedateformatforeachpaperyourjobswillappearwithinthemonthfolderintheorderofcompletionwhichisparticularlyhandywhenyouhaveanumberofjobslinedupandneedtotackletheminchronologicalorder.Thisalsoproducesaneatrecordofyourworkandprovidesaneasywayoffindingviatheauthornamesandshorttitlespapersbyacertainauthororonacertaintopicifsayyouvereceivedanotherarticlebythesameauthorperhapsevenanotherchapterinthesamelongerworkorapaperonatopicexploredinarticlesyouveproofreadearlier.Onceyouvegotthedocumentforyournewjobproperlysituatedbackituponajumpdriveorharddrive.ThewholefilestructureshouldinCHAPTER1 12factbebackeduponadriveseparatefromthecomputeryouworkonthenyoucansimplyaddnewfolderstobothyourcomputerdriveandyourbackupdriveasnewdocumentsarrive.Itisnotadvisablehowevertouseexternalbackupsystemssuchasthoseavailableonline.Whileworkingasaproofreaderyouareinaprivilegedpositionandconfidentialityisessential.Youarereadingworkthatisnotyetpublishedandavailabletothepublicanditisyourresponsibilitytokeepthatwritingcompletelyprivatewhichcannotbeguaranteedifyoustoreitonline.Sobuyajumpdriveifyouhavenoothermeansofpersonallybackingupyourfilesandworktheyarerelativelyinexpensiveandsincewordprocessingdocumentstendtotakeupverylittledigitalspacea32gigabytedrivewilllastaverylongtimeindeed.Openingthenewdocumentisalsoagoodideaatthispoint.Youwillneedtoconfirmwiththeauthororserviceyoureworkingforthatyouvereceivedthedocumentandeitherconfirmornegotiatewhenyouwillbereturningitsoyoullwanttodealwithanyimmediateproblemsatonce.Youneedtobesureforinstancethatthedocumentdoesindeedopensuccessfullyonyourcomputerandthatthemarginalcommentfunctionisworkingproperly.IvereceiveddocumentsinwhichthelettersineverymarginalcommentItriedtomakewereimmediatelyinvertedintononsensebecausetheprogramrearrangedthelettersfromrighttoleftinsteadoflefttorightwiththeproblemmagnifiedbyautomaticcorrectionssodoatestcommenttobesurethecommentfunctionisworkingasitshouldbeseeSection1.3.2belowonusingWordscommentfunction.Takeacarefullookatwordspacingaswell.OccasionallyspacingbetweenthewordsofadocumentinWordwillbealteredwhenfilesareattachedandtransferredbetweencomputerswiththeresultthatwordsruntogetherespeciallyiftheauthorhasusedforeignwordsorarchaicorunconventionalspelling.IfindthatthishappensparticularlywhencomputersrunningWindows8areinvolvedbutnotexclusivelyandperhapsmorefrequentlywhenoneoftheCHAPTER1 13computersisanApple.Ifyoureunsurewhetherthishashappenedcomparethewordcountyougetforthedocumentwiththattheauthororserviceyoureworkingforreported.Ifyouhavealotfewerwordsthisglitchhasprobablyoccurredalthoughthewordsmayhavebeenruntogetheratanearlierstagewhentheauthorsentthedocumenttotheproofreadingcompanyforinstance.PRSTipTherearewaystoresolvetheproblemsmentionedintheprecedingparagraph.IfforexampleaWordfileyouvebeensentwontopenonyourworkingcomputertryopeningitonadifferentcomputerideallywithadifferentoperatingsystemifyouhaveonethenresaveitviayourjumpdriveinthesamejobfolderwithanewnameyoucansimplyaddanumbertotheoriginalfilenameJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_2andopenthenewfileonyourworkingcomputer.Thiswillusuallybeeffectivebutyoucanalwayshavetheauthororserviceresendthefiletoseeifitthatwillresolvetheproblem.TheinversionoflettersinWordsmarginalcommentsseemstooccurwhentheoriginaldocumentiswritteninaright-to-leftscriptspecificallybecausethecommentsappeartoretaintheformattingoftheoriginallanguageevenwhenthesettingsinthemaindocumenthavebeenalteredsochangingthelanguageandformatofthecommentsandorofthewholedocumentwilloccasionallyfixtheproblembutnotalwaysandthismayprovemoresuccessfuliftheauthorisaskedtochangethelanguageformattingandresendthefile.IfthisdoesnotworkyoucantrycopyingandpastingthedocumentintoanewWordfilebutIhavenothadsuccesswiththisapproachunlesstheoriginaldocumentisfirstcopiedintoanotepadsuchasWordPadandthencopiedbackintoWord.ThiswillusuallyeliminatetheinversionoflettersinthecommentsbutitalsotendsCHAPTER1 14CHAPTER1toremoveotherformattingsuchasmarginsandspecialfontssoifyouhavetoresorttothismethoddochecktheformattingofthenewdocumentagainstthatoftheoriginalandaddanymissingformattingbackintothedocumentbeforeyoubegintoproofread.Topreventwordsinthemaindocumentfromrunningtogetherswitchingoffalllanguagecheckingandrecognitionfunctionsonyourcomputerisoftenhelpfulbutwhenothercomputersareinvolvedthoseoftheauthorandaproofreadingserviceforinstancethisproblemcanoccurnomatterwhatpreventivemeasuresyoutake.TheproblemcanbefixedmanuallyofcoursebutaddingallthosespacescanbetediousandsometimeschallengingwhenotherlanguagesorearlierformsofEnglishareinvolvedsoyoumaywanttoaskifthedocumentcanberesent.Oftenthemissingspacesareaone-timeoccurrencesosendingthedocumentasecondtimeonthepartoftheproofreadingserviceortheauthorwillreturnthetexttoitsoriginalform.IfinthisortheothersituationsIvementionedyoufindthatyoudoneedtohaveafilesentasecondtimesaveitinthesamejobfolderwithadifferentnameyoucanaddanumberagainorperhapsthewordresentafterthefilenamee.g.Jones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_resentandbesuretokeepboththeresentandtheoriginalfilesastheymaycomeinhandy.Aworkingfileofthenewdocumentcanbemadebeforeyoubeginproofreadingthepaperbyresavingitinthesamejobfolderbutwithadifferentname.IusuallyaddthelettersWFforworkingfiletothefilenameforexampleJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WFasasimpleandeasilyidentifiableindicatorofmyworkingfiles.Withaworkingfileyoucanproofreadandeditthepaperwhileretainingtheoriginaldocumentinyourcomputeratalltimeswithoutrecoursetoyour 15CHAPTER1emailaccountortheinternetsothatyoucanreturntoitiftheneedarises.IfanarticleyoureproofreadingconsistsofmorethanonefileperhapstheauthorhasprovidedtablesfiguresandorappendicesasseparatedocumentssothatthereareforinstanceJones_StructuralAnalysis_TablesFiguresandJones_StructuralAnalysis_AppendicesfilesaswellseeAppendixIyoullneedtodownloadfilecheckrenameandresaveeachofthedocumentsensuringthatyouhavebothanoriginalandaworkingversionofeachfileandthatallofthemaresavedinthesamejobfolder.YoumayalsowanttostartaWordfileforlengthierormoregeneralcommentsorqueriesyoudliketooffertheauthorespeciallyifyouaredealingdirectlywiththeauthorratherthanworkingthroughaproofreadingserviceinwhichcasethisfilecanultimatelybecomeacoveringlettertobereturnedwiththeediteddocuments.EvenifyoureworkingforaservicehoweverifyoufindthatyoureaddingmanyorverylongmarginalcommentstoanarticlesuchafilemightprovehelpfulbecauseitseasiertowritelengthyexplanationsandadviceinamainWorddocumentthaninmarginalcommentsanditsalsoeasierfortheauthortoreadanduseaWorddocumentasheorshemakesdecisionsregardingyourcomments.SuchafilemightbelabelledcoveringletterorcommentstoauthorforexampleJones_StructuralAnalysis_coveringletterandcanbecomeasyouworkarepositoryofnotesonanymatteryouwishtoraisewiththeauthor.Onceyouhaveallthefilesforajobrenamedandproperlyorganisedbackthemuponyourexternaldrive.1.3MarkingRevisionsandCommunicatingwiththeAuthorAlthougheditingelectronicallyon-screenmakesmanyaspectsofproofreadingeasierandmoreefficientthantheywouldbewhileworking 16CHAPTER1inamoretraditionalfashiononprintcopiesthesamegeneralprinciplesapplyandtheeasewithwhichchangescanbemadeintroducesanewchallengethetemptationtochangemorethanoughttobechanged.Itsessentialtorememberatalltimesthatthewritingyouareeditingisnotyourownandshouldnotbetreatedasthoughitwere.Thejoboftheproofreaderistocatchandcorrecttrueerrorsincontenttoimprovetheauthorslanguagewhenitisincorrectunclearorgenuinelyinappropriateasinthecaseofgender-specificpronounsforinstancetohelpwithformattingandpresentationthatmeetsguidelinesandscholarlystandardsandtosuggestwheredesirablebutnotstrictlynecessarychangesmightbemadetoimprovethetextfurther.Goodcopy-editingisinvisibleandaimstopolishandperfectwhattheauthorwrotebutnevertointervenetosuchadegreethattheresultistheproofreadersownimprovedversionofthetextButcheretal.2006p.32.Returningtoanauthoranarticlethatheorshebarelyrecogniseswillbenomoresuccessfulthanreturningtothatauthoranarticleinwhichtheproofreadingprocesshasleftanumberoferrorsandinconsistenciessostrikingadelicatebalanceandthereforedeterminingexactlywhatthatbalanceisinanygivenarticleareessential.Firstandforemostistheneedtobeacarefulsensitiveandcriticalreader.Beforechanginganythingthatseemsincorrectmisleadingorunclearyoumustbeabsolutelysureorassureasyoupossiblycanbeinthetimeyouhavetodedicatetothejobthatyouunderstandwhattheauthorwastryingtocommunicateandthisapplieswhetherthequestionablematerialisalongandcomplexsentenceorashortbitofstatisticalinformation.Iftheauthorsownlanguageandmethodsareunclearorinconsistentitcanattimesbeverydifficulttobecertainaboutexactlywhatwasintendedandinmanycasesitsbesttocommentandqueryinsteadofactuallymakingchanges.Communicatingclearlyandfreelywiththeauthorisalwaysagoodideainanycase.Trytoputyourselfintheauthorsshoesand 17CHAPTER1recognisetheeffortthathasgoneintothepaperthechallengespresentedbythematerialandthesubtletiesrequiredtoexpresstheauthorsideas.Theauthorisobviouslytryingtocommunicateeffectivelyorthearticlewouldntexistatallandyouwouldntbeproofreadingitsonomatterhowtrickyfrustratingandlabourintensiveitmayproveattimestoexplainaproblemandsuggestpossiblesolutionsclearandinformativeexplanationsofwhatyouvedoneandwhyyouvedoneitaswellaswhatelsemightbedonebytheauthorarenecessary.Alongwithinsightandexactitudesuchcarefulcommentarytendstodistinguishthebestandmostconscientiousproofreaders.1.3.1TrackingChangesinMicrosoftWordPleasenotethatIfocushereandelsewhereinthisbookoneditinginWordforthreemainreasonsWordisthewordprocessingprogrammostcommonlyusedbyacademicsandscientistswhilepreparingarticlesWorddocumentsarethefileformatrequestedmostfrequentlyintheguidelinesofscholarlyjournalsandWordistheprogramIknowbestwhenitcomestoproofreadingandediting.ThedetailsprovidedherethereforeapplyspecificallytoWordbuttheprinciplesoutlinedcancertainlybeusedwhenproofreadingdocumentsinavarietyofotherfileformats.Thefirstthingtodowhenyoureopentheworkingfileofthedocumentyoureplanningtoproofreadistoensurethattheon-screenviewissetatagoodsize.TodothischoosetheViewtabatthetopofthescreenanddirectlyunderViewyoullfindtheZoombuttonwhichopensaboxthatallowsyoutoselecteitherasetsizeusually200100and75orchoosewitharrowsanysizeyoulike.Settingtheviewaslargeaspossiblewillhelpyouavoideyestrainbutbesure 18CHAPTER1thatyoullstillbeabletoseeanymarginalcommentsattheright-handsidewithoutneedingtoscrollsidewaysrepeatedlyyoumayhavetoscrollinthiswayforwidetablesinalandscapeformatbutitsbestnottohavetodoitoneverypageofadocument.Theviewsizethatworksbestforyouwilldependonthesizeofyourscreenthelargeryourscreenthelargeryourviewofthedocumentcanbe.Althoughsomeproofreadersandcopyeditorsprefertomakethemostbasicchangestoadocumentwithoutmarkingthemaschangesasageneralruleitsbesttotrackallchangesyoumaketoadocumentforbothyourselfandtheauthorandalsobecausesomeproofreadingserviceswillrequirethis.SoonceyouhavetheviewofthedocumentsettoaworkablesizeyoullneedtoturnonWordsTrackChangesfunctionbeforemakinganychanges.TodothischooseReviewinthemainmenujusttotheleftoftheViewtabandclickontheTrackChangesbuttonappropriatelyillustratedwithapageandapencilthenclickontheBalloonsbuttontotherightofTrackChangesandmakesurethatthethirdoptionShowOnlyCommentsandFormattinginBalloonsisselected.Withthetrackingfunctiononandadjustedinthiswayeverythingyouaddtothedocumentwillberecordedinadifferentcolourofinkusuallyredandmarkedwithunderscoringwhileeverythingyoudeletewillchangetothatsamecolourandbestruckout.Inbothcasesathinblackverticallinedownthemarginwillmarksectionsoftextwherechangeshavebeenintroduced.Forexamplethisshorterror-riddensentencehasbeencorrectedforBritishspellingwiththechangestrackedandvisibleOriginalArestudyfocusedonthebehaviorofbyrdsbeforeahurricain.CorrectedAOurestudyfocussedonthebehaviourofbyirdsbeforeahurricaine. 19CHAPTER1Thesefeaturesmakeiteasytoseewherethetexthasbeenalteredbutiftherearealotofchangesinadocumenttheyalsotendtoclutterthetextandmakeitdifficulttoseeifelementssuchasspacingpunctuationandsometimesspellingarecorrect.PRSTipTocheckbothhorizontalandverticalspacingusetheShowHideformattingbuttoninWordsHomemenuitsthebuttonmarked.Whenthisbuttonisoneachhorizontalspaceinadocumentismarkedbyamiddotapointraisedabovethelineandeachparagraphreturnisidentifiedwithaparaphorpilcrowsoitsmucheasiertodeterminehowmanyspacesthereareandhowtheyareformattedandconsequentlyeasiertofindandcorrectanyinconsistencies.Youmaywanttoworkwiththisbuttononthroughouttheproofreadingprocessbutitshouldbeturnedoffforthefinalversionofthedocumentthatisreturnedtotheauthor.YoucanalsousetheShowMarkupbuttontotherightoftheTrackChangesbuttonintheReviewmenutorenderdeletionsandthedifferentcolourforadditionsinvisibleasyouworkwhichcanmakeiteasiertoseepunctuationandspelling.SimplyclickonthetinyarrowtotherightofShowMarkupandthenonInsertionsandDeletionstoturnthemarkingofthosefeaturesoffbutrememberthattheauthorwillultimatelyseethechangesyouvemadesotheyneedtobeasclearandeffectiveaspossibleandthismaynotbethecaseinallinstanceswhentheyareinvisibleasyouwork.Thereforeifyoudochoosetousethisfeatureyoullneedtomakeaspecialcheckforthetidinessofthechangesbeforesendingthedocumentbacktotheauthor. 20Asageneralruleitsbesttochangeaslittleaspossibleasyoueditnotonlyintheethicalsenseofrespectingtheauthorsworkandthereforealteringitaslittleaspossiblebutalsointhepracticalsenseofmaintainingadocumentthatcloselyresembleswhattheauthorsentanddoesnotcontainunnecessaryclutter.IntheexampleaboveforinstanceyoucanchangeonlythelettersthatactuallyneedchangingbydeletinginthecaseofbyrdstheyandaddingtheibyirdsasIdidoryoucanselecttheletterthatneedschangingandthentypeinthechangewhichresultsinthereplacementofthewholewordbyrdsbirds.AlterationsthatrecordandretainanyerrorsyoumighthavemadewhilecorrectinghoweveraresimplyuntidybybirdssandmayevenproveconfusingfortheauthorsoinsuchcasesitsbesttousetheUndobuttonrightabovetheHomemenutabandstartagain.Suchcareandprecisionwhileeditingwillmakeindividualchangeseasierfortheauthortoseeandifyouusethefirstmethodreplacingtheincorrectletteronlywillalsoenableyoutoretainasmuchaspossibletheformatoftheoriginaldocumentbynotaddingextrawordsandlinesandtherebyshiftingfigurestablesandotherelementsofthepaperthatmaybepronetoglitchesanymorethannecessary.IfyouhappentobeworkinginWordonadocumentthatwasoriginallypreparedwithLaTeXconvertedviaapdffileasissometimesthecasetoenableaproofreaderunfamiliarwithLaTeXtoeditadocumentpreparedwithLaTeXkeepinmindthattheauthormayhavetoentersomeorallofthechangesmanuallyandthesituationmaybesimilarwhileworkinginsomeotherfileformatssochangesthatareabsolutelynecessaryasstraightforwardaspossibleandadequatelyexplainedarebest.Farmoreproblematicisthepracticeofcopyingormovinglargechunksoftextfromoneplaceinthedocumenttoanother.WithaveryfewexceptionssuchasmovingitemsinareferencelisttoCHAPTER1 21CHAPTER1correctalphabeticalorderthisisunnecessarymovingafewwordstocorrectorimproveasentenceisreasonablebutlarge-scalechangessuchasmovingandrearrangingentiresentencesandparagraphsarebestlefttotheauthor.Whenyoumovetextinthiswayeverythingmovedshowsupinthemarkupinkcolouraschangedbutanyindividualcorrectionsthatyoumaketothepassagebeforeoraftermovingitwillnotbemarkedseparately.Thismeansthattheauthorwillnotonlyfinditdifficulttorecogniseandfindcertainaspectsofhisorherownarticlebutwillalsobeunabletodeterminewithoutacarefulcomparisonofthestruckthroughandrepositionedversionswhatelsehasbeenchangedinthepassagesconcerned.Youcanofcoursesuggestlargerchangesofthissortinmarginalcommentsifyoubelievetheywouldhelpclarifytheauthorsargumentorthedatapresentedanditiscertainlyagoodpolicytobringanypotentiallyproblematicpassagestotheauthorsattentionifyoufoundthemunclearotherreadersmaydosoaswell.Howeverrewritingisnotpartofaproofreadersnormalresponsibilitiesunlessthatrewritingisabsolutelynecessarytocorrectgrammarsyntaxwordusespellingpunctuationandsoon.TheFindandReplaceandMacrosfunctionsofWordcanalsobeusedtogreateffectwhileproofreadingbuttheyneedtobeappliedwithgreatcarebecausetheydoexactlywhatyoutellthemtodonomoreandnolessandtheydoitthoroughlywithprecisionandwithoutanythoughttospecialcasesorexceptions.IfyoureworkingonalongdocumentforinstanceandyouneedtochangethespellingorcapitalisationofeveryinstanceofacertainwordyoucansaveagreatdealoftimeandfinickyworkbyusingFindandReplace.SimplychoosetheHomemenutabthenReplaceatthefarrightandtypethewordyouwanttoreplacebesideFindwhatandtheformyouwanttoreplaceitwithbesideReplacewith.ThesafestwaytoproceedatthispointistoclickonFindNextwhich 22CHAPTER1willtakeyoutothenextinstanceofthewordandthenReplacetoinsertthenewformofthewordatwhichpointtheprogramwillmoveyouaheadtothenextinstanceoftheoriginalwordandyoucanmakethedecisiontoreplaceitornotasappropriateifyouchoosenottoreplaceanyinstancessimplypressFindNextagaininsteadofReplace.Ifyoudothiswhiletrackingchangesthereplacementswillshowupincolouredinkthoughtheprogramdoesreplacetheentirewordratherthanasinglelettere.g.revelreveal.TosavemoretimeandeffortyoucanchoosetoReplaceAllinstancesofawordoranyotherelementinasingleclickbutparticularcautionisrequiredifthisoptionisused.Theprogramwillnotdistinguishforinstancebetweenusesofthewordthatarecorrectandthosethatareincorrectorbetweenthewordsappearanceintheauthorsownproseanditsappearanceinquotationstitlesandotherpartsofthepaperthatshouldnotbechanged.Globalchangesofthissortcanthereforeintroduceasmanyerrorsastheycorrectitisoftensurprisingjusthowmanybecauseitsusuallyquitedifficulttoenvisionallthecontextsinwhichaparticularwordisusedbeforeaglobalchangeismadeandintroducingerrorsistobeavoidedatallcostsbytheprofessionalproofreader.Whileanyonecanmissanerrornowandthenitiscrucialnottointroducenewoneswithwhichtheauthorthenhastocopeafactthatreinforcesthewisdomofmakingonlythosechangesthataretrulynecessaryandhighlightstheneedforanespeciallycarefulcheckthroughthewholedocumenttomakesurethatanyglobalchangeshavenotintroducednewproblems.PersonallyIfindthatglobalchangesarerarelyworththetimetheyinitiallysaveandIprefertoretainchoiceandcontrolregardingeachchangeindividuallybutmanyproofreadersandcopyeditorswoulddisagreesoitsbesttofigureoutwhatworkswellforyoubytryingdifferentmethodsandweighingouttheprosandcons. 23CHAPTER1ExperimentingasyouworkonyourfirstfewjobsispartofthefunandrememberthatyoucanalwaysusetheUndobuttontoremovechangesyouvereconsideredoryoucanrejectyourownchangesbyclickingonthealteredtextandthenontheRejectbuttonmarkedwitharedXtotherightofShowMarkupintheReviewmenu.ToremovemoresubstantialchangesyoumaywanttoswitchoffTrackChangesandrestoretheoriginaltextbydeletingyourrevisionsandthentypingintheauthorstextcopyingfromtheoriginaldocumentifnecessarywhichisoneofthereasonsforretainingitseparatefromyourworkingfilebutbesuretoswitchTrackChangesbackonbeforetryingabettersolutionandmovingonoryoullfindthatyouvemadeanumberofchangeswithouttrackingthem.Finallydontforgettosavethedocumentfrequentlyasyoureworkingonitandtobackituponyourjumporharddriveoccasionallyaswellespeciallywhenyoureleavingyourcomputerforaperiodoftimeorshuttingitdownfortheday.Neverassumethatactiveworkwillbesafeifleftunsavedon-screenandneverrelyonasinglecopyofadocumentinprogressMurphyslawisfarfromdeadintheworldofdigitalproofreading1.3.2UsingWordsCommentFunctionProvidingmarginalcommentsonadocumentinWordisstraightforwardsimplyselecttheappropriatepieceoftextwhetherthatsacommaawordasentenceormorechoosetheReviewtabandclickonNewComment.Anemptycommentballoonattachedtotheselectedtextwillbecreatedintherightmarginandyoucanthenwritewhatyouwillinit.HowevercommentingcanattimesbethemostdifficultpartofproofreadinganacademicorscientificarticleandtherearecasesinwhichthenumberofwordsIveusedinthemarginalcommentsforapaperhavematchedor 24exceededthenumberofwordsintheoriginalpaper.Fortunatelythesewereextremesituationsinwhichlanguageorstylewasparticularlyproblematicsoitisraretoneedquitesomanycommentsbutinalmostallcasesprovidingtheauthorwithclearandcompleteexplanationsofwhatyouvedonewhileeditinghisorherpaperwillresultinahappiercustomer.NotallchangesrequirecommentofcourseandsimplealterationsthatneedtobemademanytimescanbequicklyexplainedinasinglecommentattachedtothefirstchangeofagiventypechangesmadetoachieveconsistencyintheuseoftheserialcommaareagoodexampleseeSection4.4.1belowbutbysharingtheprinciplesanddetailsofyoureditorialprocedureswiththeauthoryouhelphimorherunderstandnotjustwhatyouvedonebutwhyyouvedoneitwhichcansoftentheblowofunwelcomebutnecessarychanges.Rememberhoweverthatyourcommentsstrikeupaone-sideddialoguewithyourcustomersespeciallyifyouworkforaproofreadingcompanyanddonothavedirectcontactandthusanopportunitytoconsultwiththeauthorswhoseworkyoueditsoyourexplanationsmustbecorrectclearandthoroughiftheyaretohavethedesiredeffect.IfyoudetectthattheEnglishlanguageskillsoftheauthorwhoseworkyourereadingarenotstrongyouwillneedtotakespecialcaretoexplainyourproceduresmoreclearlythanyouwouldtoanauthorwithabettercommandofEnglish.IneithercaseyourcommentsshouldideallyserveasamodeloftheperfectEnglishproseyourehelpingtheauthorachieveinhisorherpaper.Commentscanofcoursebemoreinformalthanacademicorscientificproseandbriefpoint-formnotesareacceptableattimesbutexplanationsthataresocrypticorcontainsomanyerrorsthatwhatyouresayingcannotbeunderstoodwillnotdo.ItisalsomostdisconcertingtoreadasecondpaperbyanauthorwhoseworkyouverecentlyeditedonlytodiscoverthatheorshehasmadeuseCHAPTER1 25ofincorrectorinformalwordsandphrasesthatyouusedincommentingonthefirstpapersimilarinfacttoseeingonyourchildsfaceasourexpressionyouknowtobeyourown.BesidesiftheproseinyourcommentsispoorinqualityitwillnotinspireinyourcustomerstheconfidenceyouwantthemtofeeltowardsyourworksotheextratimeneededtowritecommentsincompleteandcorrectEnglishsentenceswillbeasoundinvestment.Itshouldalsobeentirelyclearexactlywhatyourecommentingonandthiscanbeachievedbyselectingthetextonwhichyouregoingtocommentwithasmuchcareandprecisionasyouusewhileenteringchanges.LetssayforexamplethatyouwanttoinformtheauthoroftheshortsentenceIcorrectedinSection1.3.1abovethattwoofthechangesinthesentencehavebeenmadespecificallytoconformtoBritishasopposedtoAmericanEnglishspelling.YouwouldstartbyselectingtherelevantpartofthesentenceinthiswayindicatedbyhighlightinghereAOurestudyfocussedonthebehaviourofbyirdsbeforeahurricaine.YourcommentcouldthensaysomethinglikethisPleasenotethatIveadjustedthespellingoffocussedandbehaviourinthissentencetoconformtotheBritishspellingyouverequested.Ivemadesimilarchangesthroughoutyourpaper.Withacommentaspreciseasthisthereslittlechanceofmisunderstandingevenifthecommentwereattachedonlytothefirstwordofthesentenceortothesentenceasawhole.IfhoweverthecommentwereattachedtoeitherthefirstwordorthewholesentenceanditsaidIveadjustedthewordsinthissentencetoconformtoBritishspellingitwouldbeunclearwhichwordsthosewere.IfontheotherhandthesamecommentweremistakenlyattachedtothesentenceaboveorbelowthisoneandnotcheckedandcorrectedforaccurateplacementyourcommentwouldverylikelybereducedtononsenseandleaveCHAPTER1 26yourcustomerwonderingnotonlywhatyoumeanbutalsoquitepossiblywhetheryouareinfactqualifiedtobeproofreadingandeditinghisorherarticle.Yourcommentsshouldthenbebothwordedandpositionedinanaccurateandhelpfulmannerwiththeprimarygoalbeingeffectivecommunicationwiththeauthor.Howeverthosearenottheonlyconcernsthatarisewhencommentingandoftenthemainissueiswhethertocommentatall.AsImentionedaboveinsomecasesnocommentisnecessarycorrectingcommasplicesforinstanceaddingapostrophesmissingfrompossessivesadjustingtypingerrorsorotherincorrectspellingandexpandinginformalcontractionsseeespeciallySections4.14.4.14.4.2cometomindasmattersthatrarelyrequireanycommentarythoughifanyoneoftheseproblemsoccurswithgreatfrequencyanexplanatorycommentattachedtothefirstinstancecorrectedcanbehelpful.Itsusuallybesttoofferacommentifyouhavetorewordasentencequiteextensivelytocorrectgrammarorsyntaxorsimplytoclarifywhattheauthorissayingandinsuchcasesitsgoodtonoteinacommentthattheauthorshouldcheckthesentencetobesurethatyouhaveindeedexpressedhisorherintentions.Ifasentenceissopoorlywrittenthatyousimplycantdetermineexactlywhattheauthoristryingtosayacommentexplainingtheproblemaswellasyoucanisdefinitelyinorderbutthiscanbeimmenselychallengingwhenyourealisethattheauthormaynotbeabletounderstandtheintricaciesofyourexplanationanymorethanheorshewasabletowritethesentenceeffectivelyinthefirstplace.WhencommentingonsuchdoubtfulpassagesyoucancertainlysuggestpotentialrewordingbutifyouchoosetodothisbesuretoqualifyitinsomewayPerhapsyoumean...Somethinglike...mightworkandAssumingyoumeanwhatIthinkyoudohereyoucoulduse...areeffectivewaysofexpressingyouruncertaintywhileprovidingconstructiveassistance.CHAPTER1 27IftheauthorslanguagesucceedsincompletelyflummoxingyouevenafteryouveexamineditcarefullyandrepeatedlyyouneedtomakethisclearinaskindawayaspossibledonotsayThisisnonsenseorThissentencemakesnosenseatallevenifthatisindeedthecase.Imafraidthisdoesntmakesenseasyouhaveitatpresentisacceptablehoweverandholdsoutthepossibilityofsensebeingachievedwithsomerewording.PersonalisingyourcommentcanbehelpfulImafraidthisdoesntmakesenseatleasttomeandsocansinglingoutaspectsofthepassagethatareobviouslyproblematicwhichcanusuallybedoneevenifthepassageasawholeisutterlyconfusing.Oftenforinstancetheabsenceofclearantecedentsforpronounsandthelackofagreementbetweennounsandverbscontributetoparticularlyunclearsentencessoifthesentencehasthreepronounswithuncertainmeaningsandtwopluralnounsbutverbsinsingularformsonlymentionthoseproblems.Youmaynotbeabletoprovidethemissinginformationandcorrectthesentencebuttheauthormaywellbeabletodosowithsuchhelpfulcluestowheretheproblemslie.Thesecanbedelicateissuesforsomeauthorshoweversobeverycarefulwithboththewordsyouchooseandthetoneyouconvey.SurelythisshouldbeOurasacommentontheincorrectuseofAreintheexamplesentenceaboveisntparticularlykindorhelpfulbecausesurelytheauthorhastriedhisorherbesttowriteaccuratelyandcommunicateeffectivelyevenifnotthispremiseshouldbeassumedandtheerrormightsimplybeatypingmistakeoroneofthoseinstancesofthewordprocessingprogramcorrectingthewordtowhatitdecidedtheauthorwaswritingwhenthesentencewasfirsttyped.Alterationstosomekindsofmaterialshouldalwaysbeaccompaniedbyacommentandinmanycasescommentsalonearebetterthanmakinganychanges.AsageneralruleforinstancequotationsCHAPTER1 28discussedatgreaterlengthinSection5.3belowshouldnotbechangedalthoughifyoudetectanerrorthatisanobvioustypingmistakeyoucancorrectitbutyourcorrectionmustbeaccompaniedbyacommentexplainingwhatyouvedoneandaskingtheauthortocheckthesourcetobecertainthecorrectionwasneeded.Forwhatseemmoresignificanterrorsinquotationsacarefullyplacedcommentexplainingwhatappearstobewrongandaskingtheauthortocheckthesourceandcorrecttheproblemisappropriate.NumbersanddatashouldbetreatedsimilarlyseeSection4.3.1changingsomethingassimpleastheEuropeandecimalcomma1425tothedecimalpointconventionallyusedinEnglish14.25iscertainlyacceptablethoughyoumaywanttoinformtheauthorviaacommentthatyouvedonesoifmanynumeralshaveundergonethechangebutgenerallyspeakingaproofreadershouldnotalterthenatureandquantitiesofdata.Ifsomethingaboutthenumbersorotherdatapresentedbytheauthordoesntseemquiterightnotetheprobleminacommentandleaveittotheauthortosortout.YoushouldalsocommentonchangesyoumaketothestyleofreferenceswhicharediscussedinChapter3evenifyousaynomorethanthatyouveadjustedthemtoconformtotherelevantstyleguideorguidelines.Youshouldexplainyouractionsmorefullyifyoureaddingordeletinginformationtoorfromreferenceswhichyoushouldnotdounlessyoureabsolutelycertainaboutthechangeseitherbecauseyourefamiliarwiththesourcesconcernedi.e.theyreonyourshelftocheckoryouveactuallylookedthemuponline.Forthemostpartwhetheracommentshouldbeofferedornotisamatterofpersonaljudgementandwilldifferfrompapertopaperandproofreadertoproofreaderbutifyoureindoubtitsprobablyagoodideatoerronthesideofcautionandoffersomeexplanation.ImaginingwhattheauthormightthinkandfeelwhenfacedwithaheavilyeditedarticlewillbehelpfulwereityouinthatsituationwouldCHAPTER1 29youwanttobeinformedaboutwhyallthosechangesweremadeorwouldyouratherbeleftinthedarktotrustthatalliswellScholarlyreputationsareconstructedandcanbedamagedthroughpublicationsothereareveryfewacademicsandscientistsouttherewhoarentdeeplyconcernedaboutwhattheyrewritingandpublishingandmostofthemwouldbepleasedtoimprovetheirwritingskillstoadvancetheircareers.Scholarsarebynatureseekersofknowledgesoyouwillbefulfillingaprimalaswellasapracticalneedbyprovidingtheknowledgetheydesire.Ifthatsnotenoughhowevertoinspirecarefulandthoroughcommentsonthearticlesyouproofreadreflectiononhowsuchcommentarycanbenefityoupersonallymightbe.Whenyouareworkingforinstanceoveranumberofdaysonseveraldifferentdocumentsinwhichthestylesusedareverydifferentandverylikelydoingsoamidstvariousotherdutiesandactivitiesitcanbealltooeasytoforgetexactlywhatyouvedoneinanygivenarticlewhenyoureturntoitafteraperiodoftime.Whileyoucancertainlysearchthroughthedocumenttoseeifyouwereusingaserialcommahyphensincompoundtermsorcapitalsoncertainnamesreorientingyourselfwiththedetailsofanyparticularjobcanbemucheasieriftheearlycommentsyouveaddedtothedocumentexplainclearlyandexactlywhatyourproceduresare.Forthisreasonitsimportanttoaddcommentstothecoveringletterfileaswellifyourepreparingoneforthejobasyouworkthroughadocumentinsteadofwaitinguntilyouveeditedthewholetext.Youwillalmostcertainlyneedtorevisesomecommentsasyouproceedthroughthearticleandbothmakeandaltereditorialdecisionsofcoursebutitsbettertotackleeachproblematleastinapreliminarywayasitarisesthantoruntheriskofneglectingitasanindividualissueandmoreimportantlyaspartofalargerpatternofusagethatmaybeinneedofrevision.CHAPTER1 30Chapter2ThePartsofaScholarlyArticleGuidelinesandGoodSenseEachproofreaderwillapproachtheeditingofascholarlyarticleinadifferentwayofcoursebutwhenstartingworkonanewpaperitcanbeimmenselyhelpfultotakeaquickbutcarefullookthroughthedocumentasawhole.Readthetitleofcoursebutalsotheabstracttogetasenseofthetopicthemethodologytheauthorsargumentandthequalityofthewriting.Scanthroughthepagestofamiliariseyourselfwiththearticlesstructureandindividualsections.Ifguidelineshavebeenprovidedreadthemcarefullyinrelationtowhatyouseeinthepaper.Somejournalswillprovidedifferentinstructionsfordifferentkindsofpapersoriginalresearchliteraturereviewsstudyprotocolsetc.withanarticlesstructurelengthabstractandcertainotherelementsvaryingdependingonthetypeofpapersomakesurethatyoureconsultingtherightsetofguidelinesandofferacommentifanynecessarypartofthepaperismissingordoesntseemtomatchinlengthformatorpositiontherequirements.IftherearenoguidelinestofollowwatchforlogicandconsistencyintheauthorsmethodoforganisingthearticleandforthepresenceofpartsandsectionsessentialtomostacademicandscientificarticlessuchasasectionreportingresultsandalistofreferencesseeSections2.2and2.4below.Alteringthestructureofapaperisnotrecommendedbutalertingtheauthortopotentialproblemscanbehelpful.YoucanalsoeasilycheckanumberofotherhighlyvisualelementsatthispointwhethertheauthorhasobservedthelinespacingCHAPTER2 31specifiedintheguidelinesifthereareanywhetherthereareinconsistenciesinhorizontalandverticalspacingthatcanquicklybeadjustedsuchinconsistenciescanbeeasilyidentifiedbyturningonWordsShowHideformattingbuttonanddoubleinsteadofsinglespacesaftersentencescanbelocatedbydoingasearchfortwospaceswiththeFindandReplacebuttonbothfunctionsarediscussedinSection1.3.1abovewhetherparagraphsandorsectionsarenumberediftheyshouldbeornotnumberediftheyshouldntbeandsoon.LayoutissuestablesandfiguresembeddedinthetextforinstancewhentheyshouldbeattheendofthedocumentseeSections6.16.2belowforinformationontablesandfiguresbeyondthatprovidedinthischapterortextarrangedindoublecolumnswhentheguidelinesprovidedspecificallyaskthatsuchalayoutnotbeusedcanalsobenotedwithbriefmarginalcomments.YoumayverywelladjustsomeoftheseinitialcommentsatalaterstageandyouneednotmakeanyrevisionstothepaperatthispointbutstraightforwardmattersthatdonotaffecttheargumentofthepapersuchasadjustinglinespacingandcolumnlayouttomeetguidelinesmovingaListofAbbreviationsorAuthorContributionsfrombeforetoafterthemainbodyofthepaperandadjustingtheindentationandspacingofparagraphsandreferencelistentriesforconsistencycancertainlybedone.Ifthemainsectionsofthearticleseemincorrectlyplacedhoweverortoolongortooshorttomeetanyguidelinesprovidedorareperhapssimplymissingfromthepapersomerewritingandrestructuringoftheargumentwillnodoubtbenecessarytofixtheproblemsandthatistheauthorsnottheproofreadersjobinsuchcasescommentsexplainingtheproblemsinrelationtotheguidelinesifappropriatetendtobethemosteffectiveapproach.MattersthatfallsomewherebetweennecessarychangesofformateasilymadebytheproofreaderandmoreCHAPTER2 32complexrevisionstotheargumentandstructureofapaperthatshouldbelefttotheauthormustbejudgedandtreatedindividuallyandwhatmaybeappropriateinonepapermaynotbeinthenextonetableembeddedinthemaintextcancertainlybemovedtotheendofthedocumenttomeetguidelinesbutifthepaperhas15tablesand16figuresallofthemembeddedandtheguidelinesindicatethattablesshouldappearattheendofthedocumentwhereasfiguresshouldbeinaseparatefileitwillprobablybewisesttolettheauthordotherearranging.Clearandaccurateexplanationsshouldbeprovidedforanyproblemsyouleavefortheauthortoresolveandrememberthatanychangesyoudomakewilllikelybebetterreceivedifyoumentioninacommentwhythechangeswerenecessary.AlthoughthebasicstructureofascholarlypaperisnodoubtfamiliartomostproofreaderswhoconcentrateoneditingacademicandscientificarticlesforthosenewtosuchworkandasausefulreferencetoolevenforthosewhoarentIpresentintheremainderofthischaptersomedescriptivenotesonthecommonpartsofscholarlypapers.Section2.1focusesonpreliminarymatterwhichincludesanymaterialthatprecedesthemaintextofapaperSection2.2dealswiththebodyofthearticlewhichincludesthemaintextofapaperfromitsintroductionthroughtoitsconclusionSection2.3providessomecommentsontablesandfigureswhichcanbeplacedinanumberofdifferentlocationsinandseparatefromapaperandSection2.4listsfinalandsupplementarymatterwhichincludesanypartsofapaperthatfollowtheconclusionofthemainargument.WithineachofthesecategoriesIprovidealistoftheindividualpartsthatusuallyappearinalogicalorder.NotallofthesepartswillbeincludedineveryarticlethewordingoftheirheadingsmaydiffersomewhatfrompapertopaperandtheirpreciseorderwithinadocumentmayvaryaccordingtothenatureofthetopictheCHAPTER2 33disciplineguidelinerequirementsandauthorpreferences.InmanycasesIvenotedalternatenamesandpositionsforthepartsbuttheselistsareneitherexhaustivenorprescriptivetheywillgiveyouagoodideahoweverofthepartsandsectionsthatgenerallymakeupanacademicorscientificarticle.2.1PreliminaryMatterTITLEPAGEwhichmaycontainthefollowingelementsRUNNINGHEADalsocalledrunningheadingrunningtitleandpageheadorpageheadingusuallybeginningonthefirstpageofanarticlemostoftenthetitlepagethisconsistsofashortversionofthetitlewithorwithoutthefirstauthorsnamegenerallyonlythesurname.Mostcommonlylocatedatthetopofpagesbutoccasionallyatthebottominwhichcaseitisarunningfootorfootertherunningheadshouldappearonallpagesofthearticleoftenwiththeshorttitleononesideofanopeningandthesurnameoftheauthorontheotherandcanbecombinedwithpagenumbering.Sometimestherunningheadforapaperbeginsonthesamepageastheabstractorintroductioninsteadofonthetitlepage.PAGENUMBERINGusuallybeginningonthetitlepagepagenumberscanappearatthetoporbottomofpagesasaheaderorfooterandbepositionedtothelefttotherightorinthecentreofthepagebuttheyshouldremaininthesamepositionandformatonallpagesoncetheybegin.Thepagenumberisoftencombinedwiththerunningheadinasingleheaderorfooter.Sometimesthepagenumberingofanarticlebeginsonthesamepageastheabstractorintroductioninsteadofonthetitlepage.CHAPTER2 34TITLEthepaperstitleisusuallythefirstitemtoappearundertherunningheadandpagenumberingonthetitlepage.Titlescanvaryagreatdealinlengthandcontentbutsomejournalsgivewordlimitsforthetitleandasageneralruleatitleshouldbeasshortandinformativeaspossibleevenwhenitfeaturesasubtitle.Thetitlecanbecentredonthepageorappearflushleftandpunctuationacolonendashoremdashbetweenthetitleandsubtitleforinstancecapitalisationuppercasefortheinitiallettersofallmainwordsoronlyofpropernounsthefirstwordandsometimesthefirstwordofthesubtitleandfontstyleandsizeromanboldoritalicandusuallyeitherthesamesizeasorlargerthanotherheadingsinthepaperdifferconsiderablyfrompapertopaper.Someguidelinesprovideveryspecificinstructionsastowhatshouldbeincludedinanarticletitlee.g.typeofstudyparticipantsvariablesandnatureofcomparisonsandresults.Forsomestylesthetitleisrepeatedabovetheintroductiontothemainpaperandifthereisnotitlepagethatsgenerallywherethetitleappears.AUTHORNAMEStheseusuallyfollowthetitlebutveryoccasionallyprecedeit.Generallythefullnamesofallauthorsintheorderinwhichtheyshouldultimatelyberecordedinthepublishedarticleareincludedalthoughsomejournalswillaskforinitialsandfullsurnames.Givennamesoftencomefirstbutthenamescanbeinvertedandtitlesanddegreesareusuallynotincludedbutsomejournalguidelinesdocallforthem.IfthereismorethanoneauthorasuperscriptnumeralusuallyfollowseachauthorsnametoconnectitwiththeappropriateinstitutionalaffiliationandtheseaffiliationsgenerallyfollowallthenamesifeachauthorsnameisfollowedimmediatelybytheappropriateCHAPTER2 35affiliationnoindicatorofthissortnecessary.Somejournalguidelinesrequestthatauthornamesaffiliationsandaddressesbeprovidedonaseparatepageorinanentirelydifferentfileforpurposesofblindreviewingsothisisanimportantdetailtowatchforinguidelinestheauthorshouldbeinformediftheinformationshouldbeseparatefromtherestofthepaperbutisnt.AUTHORAFFILIATIONSthesearethedepartmentsuniversitiescollegesresearchormedicalcentreshospitalsandthelikewithwhichtheauthorsareaffiliated.Eachaffiliationcanfolloweachnameorallcanfollowallnamesandbeconnectedtothenamesviasuperscriptnumerals.Fullmailingaddressesemailaddressesandphonefaxnumbersarentusuallyrequiredforallauthorsonlyforthecorrespondingauthorbuttheycanbe.Somejournalguidelinesrequestthatauthornamesaffiliationsandaddressesbeprovidedonaseparatepageorinanentirelydifferentfileforpurposesofblindreviewing.AsImentionedabovethisisanimportantdetailtowatchforandinformtheauthoraboutiftherequirementshavenotbeenmet.CORRESPONDINGAUTHORifthereismorethanoneauthoracorrespondingauthorshouldbespecifiedtoindicatewhichoftheauthorsthejournaleditorshouldcontacttocommunicateinformationaboutthearticle.Afullmailingaddressemailaddressandphoneandfaxnumbersareusuallyrequiredforthecorrespondingauthorandshouldbeincludedforthepapersauthorifthereisonlyone.Somejournalguidelinesrequestthatauthornamesaffiliationsandaddressesbeprovidedonaseparatepageorinanentirelydifferentfileforpurposesofblindreviewingsodoinformtheauthorofthisifitisrequiredbutsuchinformationhasnotbeenseparated.CHAPTER2 36WORDCOUNTifajournalrequestsawordcountforthepaperitisusuallyincludedinthepreliminarymatteroftenonthetitlepagebutsometimesinconjunctionwiththeabstractinwhichcaseittendstoappearundertheabstractandkeywords.TheheadingWordCountmayappearwithoutanumberbecausethepaperisnotyetfinishedinwhichcaseacommentcanremindtheauthortoaddtheappropriatenumberwhenthefinaleditinghasbeencompleted.Ifanumberdoesappearitsagoodideatoremindtheauthortoadjustthecountafterthefinaleditinginanycase.Occasionallyawordcountmightappearinthefinalmatterofapaperbutthisisrare.LISTorCOUNTOFTABLESANDFIGURESifajournalrequestsalistorcountofthetablesandfiguresembeddedinorsentwiththepaperthisisusuallyincludedinthepreliminarymatteroftenonthetitlepageoralongwiththeabstract.Theinformationprovidedcanrangefromasimplecounte.g.4Tablesand2Figurestoalistincludingshortenedversionsofalltabletitlesandfigurecaptions.OccasionallyalistorcountoftablesandorfiguresisincludedinthefinalinsteadofthepreliminarymatterinwhichcaseplacementbesideornearanytableheadingsandfigurecaptionsrequiredinthefinalmatterisusuallyappropriateunlesstherelevantguidelinesindicateotherwiseseealsoSection2.3below.PREVIOUSPUBLICATIONINFORMATIONifanarticlehasbeenpublishedpreviouslyandisnowbeingrepublishedinwholeorinpartinformationaboutthefirstpublicationoftenappearsinthepreliminarymattersometimesonthetitlepagethoughthiscaninsteadbeincludedinthefinalmatter.SincepermissionwilloftenberequiredtoreprintanarticlecreditsacknowledgementsorabriefreportontheauthorsCHAPTER2 37effortstoobtainpermissionmayormayneedtoappearalongwiththisinformation.POSSIBLEREVIEWERSiftheguidelinesrequestorallowalistofpossiblereviewersforthepaperortheauthorchoosestoaddsuchalistthisoftenappearsonthetitlepagethoughitcanalsobeincludedlaterinthepreliminarymatterorinthefinalmatteroftennearanyinformationonauthorcontributionsorconflictsofinterest.Enoughinformationshouldbeprovidedtoenableajournaleditortocontacttheindividualsnamedandanyspecificrequirementsoftherelevantguidelinesshouldbemet.ABSTRACTthisalwaysappearsinthepreliminarymattersometimesonthetitlepageiftheresroomandsometimesabovetheintroductionatthestartofthemainpaperbutusuallyonapageofitsown.Liketheheadingsofothersectionsbeyondthemainbodyofthepapersuchastheacknowledgementstheheadingfortheabstractisoftenformattedtomatchthefirst-levelheadingsinthebodyofthepaperanditgenerallyappearsabovebutoccasionallyonthefirstlineoftheabstract.DependingonjournalrequirementsandauthorpreferencestheabstractcanbeasingleparagraphorstructuredwiththelattermeaningthatitisdividedintoseparateparagraphseachofthembearingaheadingofteninboldoritalicfontfollowedbyeitheracolonorafullstopsuchasBackground.MethodsResultsandConclusions.Theabstractasawholeshouldbeaconcisesummaryoftheentirearticleaimsofthestudymethodologyfindingsetc.andinmostcasesitsindividualsectionssummariseorhighlightthemainpointsmadeinthediscussionsthatappearunderthesameorsimilarheadingsinthebodyofthepaper.Abstractsaregenerallyveryshortbetween100and400wordswith150to250wordsverycommonsotheserestrictionsshouldbeconsideredwhilemakingchangesandofferingsuggestionsCHAPTER2 38forchanges.Thepassivevoiceshouldbeavoidedinabstractsandsomejournalguidelinesevenspecifythisandsoshouldcitationsofsourcesunlesstheyareabsolutelynecessaryifsuchcitationsdoappearfullbibliographicalreferencesmustbeprovidedforthem.Occasionallyguidelineswillallowpoint-formlanguageinanabstractbutsinceitsvitalfortheabstracttocommunicatealargeamountofinformationbothclearlyandconciselycorrectandaccurateEnglishwritteninfullsentencesisusuallybest.Anabstractshouldusevocabularysuitedtoageneralaudiencesoabbreviationsandspecialisedterminologyshouldbekepttoaminimumanddefinedorexplainedwhenused.Theabstractforapapershouldalsoaccuratelyreflectthecontentofthepaperwithalloftheinformationitprovidesmatchingexactlythatfoundinthepaperitselfalthoughtheproofreaderwontbeabletodetermineifthisisthecaseornotuntilthepaperisreadaswell.KEYWORDSsometimeswrittenastwowordskeywordstheseareusuallylistedimmediatelyaftertheabstractwhereveritmightbeplacedwiththeheadingoftenappearinginboldfontandfollowedbyacolonandthekeywordsthemselvesfollowingimmediatelyinromanfontonthesameline.Sometimesjournalguidelinesdonotspecifyhowmanykeywordsshouldbeincludedbutmostoftenbetweenthreeandtenarerequestedwiththreetoeightbeingmostcommon.Analphabeticalarrangementissometimesrequiredasiscapitalisationontheinitialletterofeachkeywordandthepunctuationtobeusedbetweenthekeywordsisoccasionallyindicatedinguidelinescommasorsemicolonsarecommonandmiddotsrarebutpossible.Somejournalguidelineswillwantwordsusedinthetitlerepeatedinthekeywordswhileafewwillinsistthatkeywordsnotrepeatthetermsinthetitlesodowatchforsuchrestrictions.CHAPTER2 39STATEMENTSOFOBJECTIVESthesearebrieforpoint-formstatementsoftheobjectivesoftheresearchreportedinthepaper.Whenstatementsofobjectivesarerequiredorprovidedtheyareoftenincludedinthepreliminarymattersometimesonapageoftheirownbuttheycanoccasionallybeincludedinthefinalmatterinstead.Frequentlyjournalguidelinesthatrequirestatementsofobjectivesprovidestrictwordlimitsandspecificformatsabulletedlistiscommonforinstanceforsuchobjectives.Thesestatementssometimesappearaswellasandsometimesreplaceasectionwithinthebodyofthepaperthatdiscussestheaimsorobjectivesofthestudy.PRSTipThetitleabstractandkeywordsmaybeverybriefpartsofanarticlebuttheyarevitaltothearticlessuccessinanumberofways.Academicandscientificarticlesareoftensoughtandfoundbypotentialreadersthroughthetermsusedinthetitleabstractandkeywordssoitsessentialthatthesethreecomponentsuselanguagethataccuratelyreflectsthecontentofthepaperisaccessibletoageneralreadingaudienceandislikelytobeusedbyreadersseekinginformationlikethatfoundinthepaper.Journalguidelinesregardingthetitleabstractandkeywordsforanarticlemustbefollowedpreciselyandtheyaresometimesquitedetailed.Wordsusedinthetitleforinstanceshouldinsomecasesberepeatedinthekeywordstoreinforcethecentralsearchtermsbutinothersthisrepetitionshouldbestrictlyavoidedtoincreasethenumberofsearchterms.SuchrestrictionsusuallydonotapplytoabstractswhichtendtorepeatthelanguageofthetitleandkeywordsaswellasthepaperitselfbutthestructureandcontentoftheabstractshouldobservetherelevantguidelinesandCHAPTER2 40accuratelyrepresentthestructureandespeciallythecontentofthepaper.Theabstractisthemainandmostimmediatemeansbywhichreadersincludingjournaleditorswillbecomefamiliarwiththeresearchinanarticleandfeelinspiredtoreadonsoitcouldbearguedthatitisthemostimportantpartofascholarlypaper.Itisalsoveryshorthoweversoagreatdealofinformationhastobeeffectivelyandifatallpossibleeloquentlypackedintorelativelyfewwords.Thetitleabstractandkeywordsofanarticleshouldthenbeproofreadwithspecialcareeachshouldbecheckedagainsttheothertwoandagainstotherpartsofthepaperforaccuracyandconsistencyandeveryeffortviacorrectionsandcommentsshouldbemadetoensurethatthetitleandabstractarewrittenasinformativelyconciselyandelegantlyaspossible.2.2TheBodyofthePaperINTRODUCTIONtheintroductionopensthepaperandcanappearwithorwithoutaheadingwhichlikeallotherheadingsinthebodyofthepapercanbenumberedornotcanfeatureaspecialfontboldoritalicandorfontsizeandcanuseinitialcapitalsonallmainwordsoronlyonpropernounsandthetitlesandsometimessubtitlesfirstword.Whateverformatisuseditshouldconformtotheguidelinesprovidedortheauthorspredominantusagebemaintainedconsistentlyonallfirst-levelheadingsinthepaperandideallybeusedforheadingsonthemainsectionsinthepreliminaryandfinalmatteraswell.Theintroductionservestointroducethestudybyprovidingasummaryofpreviousscholarshipandotherbackgroundinformationonthetopicandexplainingtherelevanceofthepresentresearch.IntroductionscanvarywidelyintermsofCHAPTER2 41lengthandcontentdependingonthedisciplineandtopictherequirementsofspecificguidelinesandtheauthorspreferences.Someguidelinesprovideveryspecificinstructionsabouthowtheintroductionshouldbeentitledandstructuredhowlongitshouldbeandwhatitshouldcontainbutinmostcasesthesechoicesareuptotheauthor.TheintroductioncancontainsubsectionswiththesubheadingsusingadifferentformatfromthatoftheintroductionsmainheadingongeneraltopicssuchasBackgroundorPreviousScholarshiporonparticularproblemsorissuescentraltothestudy.SometimestheintroductionisentitledBackgroundorsomespecificallyrelevantheadinginsteadofIntroductionandsometimesbackgroundinformationwillbetreatedinaseparatefirst-levelsectionparalleltotheintroduction.BACKGROUNDasectionwiththisheadinginsteadofanuntitledsectionorsectionentitledIntroductionwillsometimesopenandintroducethepaper.Alternativelyasectiononbackgroundcanbeafirst-levelsectionparalleltotheintroductionorasubsectionwithintheintroduction.WhereveritmayappearasectionentitledBackgroundshouldfocusspecificallyonbackgroundinformationpreviousscholarshippaststatisticscurrenttrendsetc.relevanttothestudy.Journalguidelinesmayindicatethelengthformatandspecificcontentofthissectionbutthesearegenerallydecidedbytheauthor.AIMSorOBJECTIVESOFTHESTUDYinmanycasestheaimsorobjectivesofastudywillbeoutlinedintheintroductorysectionofthepaperoccasionallyinitsownsubsectionorinthestatementsofobjectivesinthepreliminarymatterbutsometimesthereisaseparatesectiondedicatedtothisandparalleltotheintroductioninthemainbodyofthepaper.Thissectiontendstobequiteshortbutcanincluderelevantbackgroundinformationspecificgapsinthescholarshipforinstanceandhypothesesorresearchquestions.CHAPTER2 42HYPOTHESESorRESEARCHQUESTIONSwhilethesecanappearintheaimsorobjectivesintroductionormethodologysectionofapaperinsomecasestheyappearinsteadinaseparatefirst-levelsection.Astudymighthaveoneormorehypothesesorresearchquestionsbutinallcasesitsessentialthatthehypothesesandquestionsareclearpreciseandappropriatelywordedandpunctuatedbesuretocheckthatthequestionsactuallyarewordedandpunctuatedasquestionsforinstanceifthatiswhattheyarecalled.HypothesesandresearchquestionsareoftenlaidoutinadisplayformatformoreinformationonthisformatseeSection5.3.1.belowsothattheystandoutamidsttherunningtextandtheyareusuallyrevisitedbytheauthorlaterinthepaper.METHODSorMETHODOLOGYalmosteveryacademicorscientificpaperincludesamainsectiondedicatedtodescribingthemethodsormethodologyusedinthestudybuttheheadingschosenforandthespecificcontentsincludedinthissectionvaryimmenselywithsomemethodologysectionshighlytheoreticalandothersexplaininginsimplerlanguagethebasicproceduresandtestsused.SubsectionswithinamethodologysectionmightbearheadingssuchasParticipantsProceduresQuestionnairesMeasuresStatisticalAnalysisCaseStudiesTheoreticalConsiderationsLiteratureReviewandsoonthoughsomeofthesemightappearasseparatefirst-levelsectionsparalleltothemethodologysection.Aswithearliersectionstheformatandcontentofthemethodologysectiondependonguidelinesauthorpreferencesandthenatureofthematerialbutitisessentialthatthewaysinwhichtheresearchwasconductedandtheresultswereobtainedaredescribedclearlyandinenoughdetailtodemonstratetheirappropriateness.SometimesthelimitationsofthemethodologyCHAPTER2 43willreceivetreatmentinthissectionbutmoreoftenthosewillbeaddressedinthediscussionorconclusionsectionofapaperorinasectionspecificallydedicatedtolimitations.CASESTUDYorCASESTUDIESifthepaperyourereadingusesoneormorecasestudiesasaprimaryresearchmethodamainsectionwiththisheadingmightappearinadditiontoorinsteadofamethodologysectionorasubsectionwiththisheadingmightbeincludedwithinthemethodologysection.Ifmorethanonecasestudyisusedthissectionwilloftenbedividedintoanumberofsubsectionseachdedicatedtoasinglecasestudyandprovidingadescriptionofalltherelevantdetailsassociatedwiththatcasestudy.Thesesubsectionstendtobearhighlyindividualheadingsthenamesofpatientsartistsintervieweesschoolsorrobotsforinstanceortheplacenamesofcountriesorcitiesorthelocationsofnaturaldisastersorpoliticalcrises.LITERATUREREVIEWifthearticleyourereadingreliesheavilyonpreviousresearchorotherwiseusesanextensivereviewofliteratureamainsectionorperhapsasubsectionwithinthemethodologysectionwiththeheadingLiteratureReviewwilllikelyappear.Subsectionswithinaliteraturereviewsectionmightfocusonawidevarietyoftopicssuchasprimaryandsecondaryliteraturetheoriesandtrendsspecificauthorsandcriticsparticulartypesoftrialsorexperimentsandthestrengthsandweaknessesofcurrentscholarshipinanarea.RESULTSorFINDINGSalmosteveryacademicorscientificarticlehasaresultssectioninwhichthedatacollectedinthestudyarereportedalongwiththeresultsofanyanalysesperformedonthedata.ThenatureofthedataandanalysespresentedcanvarygreatlyandsometimestherewillbemorethanonemainsectionreportingfindingswitheachofthesesectionsbearingaheadingthatindicatesthekindofdataorCHAPTER2 44resultsitreportsoroneoftheideasortheoriesthattheresearchanalysisorreviewhasledtheauthortoformulate.Moreoftenhoweverthemainresultssectionofapaperwillcontainsubsectionsreportingthefindingsofdifferenttestssurveysanalysescasestudiesandsoon.Theremightbecomparisonssummariestableschartsphotographslistsorthepresentationofdatainrelationtohypothesesandresearchquestions.Whatevertheparticularresultsandmeansofreportingthemmaybethedescriptionsshouldbeclearaccurateandconsistentandanydatapresentedinliststablesandfigureschartsgraphsboxesandthelikemustcorrespondexactlyinbothcontentandformwiththesameinformationintherunningtextofthepaper.DISCUSSIONthissectionofanacademicorscientificarticleprovidestheauthorwiththeopportunitytoanalysethefindingsofthestudyinmoredetailthanmightbepossibleinaresultssectionandtoincludefurtherreflectionsuponthesignificanceimplicationsandlimitationsofthosefindings.ThediscussionsectionmightcontainsubsectionswithheadingssuchasSignificanceofThisStudyClinicalImplicationsLimitationsoftheStudyandConclusionsthoughinmanycasessuchtopicswillbecoveredinmainsectionsparalleltothediscussionsection.Theapproachusedtodiscussresultstendstobehighlyindividualandthusvariesconsiderablyfromauthortoauthorbutinallcasesitsessentialthatthediscussionaccuratelyandfairlyrepresentsthestudyasawholeandthemethodologyanddatapresentedinearliersections.Anyspeculationorconjecturethatmovesbeyondwhatisstrictlysupportedbythestudyanditsresultsshouldgenerallyspeakingbeclearlywordedassuch.LIMITATIONSOFTHESTUDYorRESEARCHwhetherthissectionappearsonitsownsomejournalsrequestthisorasaCHAPTER2 45subsectioninanothermajorsectionofascholarlypaperitisavitalpartofanyacademicorscientificarticleandmanyreputablejournalswillinsistondisclosureanddiscussionofthepotentialweaknessesandlimitationsoftheresearchpresented.Mostoftenthisisaddressedinthediscussionorconclusionsectionofapaperbutoccasionallylimitationswillbetreatedearlierinthemethodologysectionorfirstintroducedthereintheoreticaltermsthendiscussedinspecificdetailinrelationtothecurrentresearchinthediscussionorconclusionsection.Thelimitationsofastudyareoftendiscussedinrelationtoitsimplicationswiththetwobeingcloselyconnectedandthesignificanceoftheresearchfrequentlydeterminedatleasttosomedegreebyitslimitations.SIGNIFICANCEorIMPLICATIONSOFTHERESEARCHwhilethissectioncanbeincludedasasubsectionineitherthediscussionorconclusionsectionofascholarlypaperitsometimesappearsinaseparatesectionandcanbecloselyassociatedwithastudyslimitations.Somejournalguidelineswillspecificallyrequestanimplicationssectionoccasionallyintheformofabriefsummaryorashortlistofstatementsandsuchsummariesorstatementscaninsteadappearinthefinalmatterofapaper.Inmostcasessuggestionsforfuturedirectionsordevelopmentsbasedonthestudyanditsresultswillbeincludedwiththediscussionoftheimplicationsandsignificanceoftheresearchsometimesasasubsectionbutthisinformationcanalsoappearasamainsectionparalleltotheimplicationssection.FUTUREDIRECTIONSorDEVELOPMENTSalthoughcloselytiedtothesignificanceandimplicationsoftheresearchandoftenincludedinamainsectiondedicatedtothattopicorinthediscussionorconclusionsectionofapapersuggestionsforfuturedirectionsanddevelopmentsofresearchintheareaofaCHAPTER2 46papercanbepresentedinamainsectionoftheirownparticularlyifthestudyispartofanongoingresearchprocessorthejournalguidelinescallforaseparatediscussionofpotentialresearchdevelopmentsbasedonthestudy.Futuredirectionsanddevelopmentscanalsobeoutlinedinbrieforpoint-formstatementsinasummaryofresultsorimplicationssectionincludedinthefinalmatterofapaper.CONCLUSIONorCONCLUSIONStheconclusiontoanacademicorscientificarticlecanbeincludedasasubsectionofthemaindiscussionsectionofapaperorappearasamainsectioninitsownright.Authorsconcludetheirworkinverydifferentwayssothereslittlestandardisationbutinthetraditionalpatternofbothconcludingthestudyandsuggestingnewdirectionsforfutureresearchtheconclusionofapaperofteninvolvesdiscussionofthelimitationssignificanceimplicationsandpotentialdevelopmentsofthecurrentresearchsometimesasseparatesubsectionsaswellasabriefsummaryoftheresultsortheirmoreimportantaspects.Sometimesaconclusioncloseswiththetreatmentofanylimitationsofthestudybutthiscantakethewindoutofthesailsofanargumentsoitisusuallybettertofollowanydisclosureoflimitationswithapresentationofpositiveimplicationsandpotentialdevelopmentsandthiscancertainlybesuggestedifnecessarybytheconscientiousproofreader.FOOTNOTESfootnotesbydefinitionappearatthefootofpageswherevertheyareusedandasageneralruleshouldnotbeattachedtopreliminaryorendmatterortoanyheadingsinthemainbodyofthepaper.ThetextinfootnotesoftenusesaslightlysmallerfontthanthemaintextandisusuallyconnectedtoappropriateaspectsoftheauthorsargumentviasuperscriptoroccasionallybracketedArabicnumerals11or1.FootnotescanbeusedtoprovideawidevarietyofCHAPTER2 47informationfromfullbibliographicalreferencestosummariesofscholarshiponatopictosuggestionsforfurtherreadingtoalternativeorcontradictoryeditionsandarguments.Theircontentdependstosomedegreeonthesystemofreferencingusedinapaperandtheuseoffootnotestoprovidebibliographicalreferencesispredominantlyafeatureofarticlesinthehumanities.Somejournalsespeciallyinthesciencesandsocialsciencesdonotallowfootnotesorendnotessolelyforthepurposeofprovidingreferencesprimarilybecausetheyusedifferentsystemsofreferencingbutdoallowthemsparinglyforbriefexplanatoryorsupplementaryinformationothersdonotallownotesatall.Footnotesshouldbewrittenincompleteandproperlypunctuatedsentenceswiththeexceptionoffullbibliographicalreferenceswhichshouldalsobearrangedandpunctuatedwithprecisiongenerallyincompliancewithspecificguidelines.Footnotesshouldnotbetoolongsoifafootnoteextendstomorethanoneparagraphorappearstocontainmaterialthatmightbebetterpresentedinthemaintextitsworthsuggestingthatpartorallofthenotebemovedeithertothemaintextortoanappendixinthefinalmatter.InsteadoforrarelyaswellasfootnotesanauthormayuseorajournalsguidelinesmayrequestendnoteswhichcanperformthesamefunctionsasfootnotesandshouldappearinthefinalmatterseeSection3.1.4belowforadetaileddiscussionofbothkindsofnotes.PLACEMENTNOTESorCUESFORTABLESANDFIGUREStablesandfigurescanbeembeddedinthemainbodyofthepaperandappearinavarietyofpositionsinrelationtoapaperssectionsandargumentbuttendtobeincludedespeciallyintheresultsanddiscussionsectionsofacademicandscientificarticles.Guidelinerequirementsandauthorpreferencesoftenplacethemattheendofadocumenthoweverorinseparatefilesandineitherofthesesituationsnotesorcues 48Table1hereorFigure2abouthereareprovidedatthepointsinthebodyofthepaperwheretheauthorwouldhavethetablesandfiguresultimatelyappearinthepublishedversionseealsoSection2.3below.2.3TablesandFiguresTablesandfiguresareacommonandnecessarypartofmanyacademicandscientificarticlesbuttheirplacementinapapervarieswidelyfromauthortoauthorandjournaltojournaltheymightbeembeddedinthemaintextofapapertackedontotheendafterthefinalmatterorsubmittedinaseparatefileorintwoormoreseparatefileswithfiguresinparticularoftenseparatedfromthemaindocumentseetheexamplesoffilenamesinAppendixI.Iftablesandfiguresarenotembeddedinthemainbodyofapaperplacementnotesareusuallyrequiredinthemainpaperandiftablesandfiguresarenotincludedinthemaindocumentatallinformationaboutthemintheformoffigurecaptionsorlegendsandlessoftentableheadingsordescriptionsaresometimesrequiredintheendmatterofthepaper.Regardlessofexactlywheretablesandfiguresappeartheyusuallyappearintheorderinwhichtheyrementionedandshouldbenumberedaccordingtothatsameorder.Oftentheinstructionsfortablesandfiguresareamongthemostdetailedinformationprovidedinjournalguidelinessoifsuchinstructionsareprovidedbytheauthortheyshouldbeconsideredcarefullyinrelationtothearticleyoureproofreadingandthenatureofthematerialcontainedinitstablesandfigures.Howeversometimestablesandfiguresarenotevensentalongwiththeotherpartsofapaperforproofreadingsotheremaybenomorethanin-textreferencesplacementcuesandcaptionsheadingstoindicatetheintendedpresenceoftablesandfiguresinthepaperifthisisCHAPTER2 49thecasebesuretoaddaqueryabouttheminacommentjustincasetheyvebeenforgottenbytheauthor.FormoreinformationontablesandfiguresseeSections6.1and6.2below.TABLEStablesareusuallynumberedwithArabicnumeralsveryrarelywithRomannumeralsintheorderinwhichtheyarementionedinthemaintextandultimatelyshouldbeplacedinthepaper.Eachtableshouldbereferredtobynumberinthepaperandshouldbearaheadingthatclearlyidentifiesthetablesnumberanddescribeswhatthetableshows.Ifyouhavenoparticularguidelinestofollowtheauthorspredominantpracticeshouldbeobservedandanyanomaliesshouldbequeried.Ifthereareparticularguidelinestoobserveanyaspectsoftablesthatobviouslydonotconformtothoserequirementssuchasthewayinwhichrowsandcolumnsareruledandtableheadingsformattedshouldreceiveacommentiftheproblemisaminororsimplematteritcanbecorrectedbutmajorchangestotablesandthedatatheypresentshouldbelefttotheauthor.Dependingontheguidelinesandpoliciesofthejournalconcernedifanytablesareparticularlylargeandcomplexorusecolourtheymayneedtobeadjustedorpublishedonlineonly.FIGURESfigureswhichcanincludechartsgraphsplotsboxesphotographsdrawingsandmapsarealsousuallynumberedwithArabicrarelyRomannumeralsintheorderinwhichtheyarementionedandultimatelyshouldbeplacedinthepaper.EachfigureshouldbereferredtobynumberinthemaintextandshouldbearacaptionorlegendthatclearlyidentifiesthefiguresnumberanddescribeswhatthefigureshowssometimestheabbreviationFig.isusedinbothfigurecaptionslegendsandin-textmentionsoffigures.Figurecaptionsmayormaynotusethesameformatastableheadings.IfnoguidelineshavebeenprovidedtheauthorsCHAPTER2 50predominantpatternsshouldbeobservedandanyanomaliesshouldbequeried.Ifyouarefollowingguidelinesanydiscrepanciesbetweenthefiguresinthepaperandtherequirementsshouldreceiveacommentorifpracticalandstraightforwardacorrectionbutanymajorchangesneededinfiguresshouldbelefttotheauthor.MoreoftenthanisthecasewithtablesfigureswillneedtobesubmittedinfilesseparatefromthemaindocumentofapaperandofteninparticularfileformatssuchasPDFsorTIFFstomeettherequirementsofmanyjournals.Insomecasesfiguresparticularlylargeorcolourfigureswillbepublishedonlyonlineandwillnotbeincludedorwillbeincludedonlyinblackandwhiteintheprintedversionofthepaper.2.4FinalandSupplementaryMatterSTATEMENTSorSUMMARYOFRESULTSandorIMPLICATIONSinsomecasesjournalguidelineswillaskforabriefsummaryorshortsometimespoint-formstatementsoftheresultsandorimplicationsofthestudyinwhichcasethisinformationusuallyappearsinthefinalmatterbutitcanappearinthefrontmatterinstead.Alternativelyasectiondedicatedtoasummaryoftheresultsandtheimplicationsoftheresearchcanappearinthemainbodyofthepapersometimesasafirst-levelsectionandsometimesasasubsectionwithinthediscussionorconclusionsectionofanarticle.LISTOFABBREVIATIONSalistofabbreviationsandtheirdefinitionsisonlyoccasionallyincludedinjournalarticlesbutifoneisrequiredbytheguidelinesornecessarybecausetheauthorusesmanyabbreviationsitwillusuallyappearinthefinalmatterthoughitcaninsteadbeincludedinthepreliminaryCHAPTER2 51matter.Abbreviationlistsshouldbearrangedalphabeticallyanditisessentialthatallnonstandardabbreviationsusedinthepaperbeincludedinthelistandthatallabbreviationsincludedinthelistactuallybeusedinthepaper.Itisalsoimperativethatallabbreviationsanddefinitionsinthelistmatchthoseprovidedinthemaintextandotherpartsofthepaperprecisely.ETHICALCONSIDERATIONSethicalconsiderationsareespeciallyimportantwhenastudyexaminesorotherwisemakesuseofhumanparticipantsorconductstestsonanimals.Inthesecasesasectiononethicalconsiderationsisoftenincludedsometimesinthebodyofthepaperitselfbutmoreofteninthefinalmatter.Itwilloftenincludemeasurestakenbytheauthorsuchasinformedconsenttoensurethatethicalstandardsweremaintainedaswellasparticularstatementsofapprovalfromrelevantinstitutionsuniversitiesandhospitalsforexample.Clarityisoftheutmostimportanceinsuchsectionssoshortsimplesentencesarebest.AUTHORSorAUTHORCONTRIBUTIONSalthoughthisisnotaconcernifanacademicorscientificarticlehasonlyoneauthorwhenapaperisauthoredbytwoormorepeopleanacknowledgementofthespecificcontributionsoftheindividualauthorstoboththeresearchandthecompositionofthearticleisoftenrequiredbythejournalordesiredbytheauthors.Thisgenerallyappearsinthefinalmatterthoughitcaninsteadbeincludedinthepreliminarymatter.Ifanonymityisnecessaryduetoblindreviewingthesectiononauthorscontributionsmayneedtobeexcludedfromtheinitialsubmissionorsubmittedseparatelythoughthecustomofusinginitialsonlywhendescribingthecontributionsofindividualauthorsoftenmeansthatlittleabouttheauthorsidentitiesisrevealedinthissectioninanycase.Stillitsgoodtolettheauthorknowifyounoticeanypotentialproblemsinrelationtojournalguidelines.CHAPTER2 52CONFLICTOFINTERESTSorCONFLICTINGINTERESTSthissectionisoftenrequiredbyjournalguidelinessometimeswiththeprecisewordingspecifiedintheinstructionsandwhenitisrequireditusuallyappearsintheendmatterthoughitcanalternativelybeincludedinthepreliminarymatter.Declarationsandexplanationsinthissectionshouldbeclearandspecificandshouldtakeallauthorsandusuallyallsourcesoffundingintoconsideration.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSthesewillappearinmanyscholarlypapersusuallyinthefinalmatterthoughsometimesguidelinesaskforthissectioninthefrontmatterinstead.TherearetwomainkindsofacknowledgementsthoserecognizingtheideasassistancesupportorinspirationofthosewhohavehelpedtheauthortocreatetheworkandthoselistingthecopyrightholdersinmaterialsuchasfiguresillustrationsandquotationsreproducedinthepaperRitter2005Section1.2.10.Inthefirstcategoryhelpwithresearchanddatacollectionthatdoesntjustifyauthorialcreditisincludedasarethepersonalsupportoffamilyandfriendsandanyrelevantfinancialsupportthoughthelastcanalsoappearinaseparatesectiononsourcesoffunding.Inacademicandscientificarticlesacknowledgementofsourcesandpermissionsforreproducingmaterialinfiguresandtablesoftenappearswiththerelevanttablesandfiguresusuallyinthetablenotesorthefigurecaptionsorlegendsinsteadofintheacknowledgementsandpermissionscanalsooccupyaseparatesectionintheendmatter.Occasionallyguidelinesaskthatthelocationoftheresearchinstitutioncitycountryetc.beincludedintheacknowledgementssectionaswell.AlthoughtheacknowledgementsinscholarlyarticlestendtobeshortandstraightforwarddowatchforarbitraryshiftsCHAPTER2 53betweenthefirst-second-andthird-personvoicesbecausesuchshiftsshouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossible.SOURCESOFFUNDINGifrequiredasaseparatesectionthisshouldgivespecificsaboutanyinstitutionsorindividualswhohaveprovidedfundingfortheresearchpresentedinthepaper.Thissectionisusuallyincludedinthefinalmatterbutitcaninsteadappearinthepreliminarymatter.Fundingconnectedwiththeauthororwitheachauthorifthereismorethanoneisoftenincludedaswellasanyfundingassociateddirectlywiththecurrentresearchandorstudy.PERMISSIONSoccasionallyjournalguidelineswillaskforaseparatesectionlistinganypermissionsrequiredforreproducingmaterialimagesfigurestableslengthyquotationsetc.thathasbeenpublishedelsewhereorisotherwiseundercopyrightoranauthormaychoosetoincludesuchasectionwhetherguidelinesspecifyitornot.Theexactwordingofsuchpermissionsisoftenprovidedbytheinstitutionsorpublishersgrantingthepermissionordeterminedbytheconditionsofthepermissiongrantedawordsuchascourtesyorgenerousisoftenaddedforinstanceifpermissionsaregrantedfreeofchargesowhileasmuchconsistencyaspossibleinthewordingofcreditsandpermissionsisdesirablethosefromdifferentplacesshouldnotsimplybemadeconsistentinformatorcontent.Ifanyofthelanguageinthissectionisincorrectorconfusingitcancertainlybeimprovedaslongastheauthorisinformedofthechangesbutotheralterationswhiletheycancertainlybesuggestedforpurposesofclarityandconsistencyshouldbelefttotheauthor.APPENDICESveryfewacademicandscientificarticlesincludeappendicesbutwhensupplementarymaterialtoolongordetailedforasinglefootnoteendnoteortableisnecessaryitisusuallyplacedinanappendixunlesstherelevantguidelinesCHAPTER2 54donotallowappendices.AppendicesoccasionallycalledappendixesorannexessometimesappearinslightlysmallerfontthanthemaintextofapaperandareoftenlabelledwithlettersABCetc.ratherthannumbersbutArabicorRomannumeralsarealsoacceptableagainaccordingtoguidelines.AppendicesalwaysappearinthefinalmatterandgenerallyprecedeanyendnotesthatmaybepresentaswellasthereferencelistbutsomejournalguidelineswillspecifyslightlydifferentplacementformoreinformationonappendicesseeSection6.3below.ENDNOTESendnotesbydefinitioncomeattheendofthedocumentusuallybutnotalwaysbeforethereferencesandcertainlybeforeanytablesorfiguresandinformationabouttablesandfiguresthatneedtobeincludedattheendofthedocument.TheyareusuallyusedwhetherforreferencesorsupplementaryinformationinsteadoffootnotesthoughwhentwokindsofnoteshavetorunparalleltoeachotherbothkindscanbeusedtogetheraslongasdifferentindicatorsareemployedforthetwokindsofnotessuperscriptArabicnumeralsforfootnotesforinstanceandbracketedArabicnumeralsforendnotes.LikefootnotesendnotesshouldbewrittenincompletesentencesexceptwhenprovidingreferencesonlyinwhichcaseacertainstyleisgenerallyobservedbutendnotescanbeconsiderablylongerthanfootnotesbecausetheydonothavethepotentialtotakeoverthelayoutofpagesinthemainbodyofthepaperformoreinformationonbothendnotesandfootnotesseeSection3.1.4below.LISTOFREFERENCESorWORKSCITEDorBIBLIOGRAPHYthisisanessentialpartofmostacademicandscholarlyarticlesexceptforthoseparticularlyinthehumanitiesthatprovidefullbibliographicalreferencesinfootnotesorendnotesandevenCHAPTER2 55thenabibliographysometimesappearsaswell.Generallyspeakingthelistshouldbeginonanewpageandshouldobserveeithernumericaloralphabeticalorderaccordingtowhetherthein-textcitationsarenumericaloruseauthornamesalongwitheitherdatesorshorttitles.ConsistencyofbothstyleandcontentamongitemsisessentialasistheinclusionofallitemscitedinthepaperitselfseeChapter3belowfordetailedinformationonreferencesofallkinds.Likeotherpartsoftheendmatterthereferencesaresometimesnotincludedwhenapaperissenttoaproofreader.Thiscanmakeitmoredifficulttospotandcorrecterrorsinthein-textcitationsbecausethereisnotenoughinformationtotracethesourcesbutunlessthefullreferencesareprovidedinnotesinsteadtheabsenceofalistofreferencescanalsomeanagooddeallessdetailedworkbecausereferencesshouldalwaysbecheckedandadjustedwithspecialcareandprecision.Iffullbibliographicalreferencesdonotappearanywhereinapaperyoureproofreadingacommentmentioningtheomissionisagoodideajustincasetheauthorhasforgottentolistthem.TABLEHEADINGSandDESCRIPTIONSsometimestablesshouldbesubmittedinseparatefilesratherthaninthemaindocumentofascholarlypaperandifthisisthecasetablenumberswithheadingsandpossiblymoredetaileddescriptionsareoccasionallyrequiredinthefinalmatter.TheytendtobeincludedattheendofapapersfinalmatterbutoftenbeforefigurecaptionsorlegendsifthesearerequiredaswellseealsoSection2.3above.FIGURECAPTIONSandorLEGENDSiffiguresaretobesubmittedinfilesseparatefromthatofthemainpaperwhichisoftenrequestedinjournalguidelinesfigurenumbersandcaptionsandorlegendsdescribingthefiguresingreaterdetailwillusuallyberequiredintheendmatter.IfthisisthecaseCHAPTER2 56thesetendtobeincludedaftertheotherfinalmatterseealsoSection2.3above.OTHERINFORMATIONanyotherinformationrequiredbyguidelinesbutnotmentionedinthislistsupplementalmaterialsdestinedforonlinepublicationonlyforinstanceseeSection6.3belowcanbeincludedintheendmatteriftheguidelinesdonotspecifyadifferentposition.Suchinformationmightbeplacedattheveryendofthedocumentorbesidesimilarorcloselyrelatedmaterial.CHAPTER2 57Chapter3ReferencesandReferencingStylesCheckingCorrectingandCommentingNotallproofreaderswillwanttosingleoutthereferencesofanacademicorscientificarticleanddealwiththembeforereadingthepaperitselfsotheinformationprovidedinthischaptercancertainlybeusedatanystageofproofreadingconsideredappropriateforcheckingreferences.Howevertreatingreferencesasaseparateactivityearlyintheprocesscanbeincrediblyhelpfulforseveralreasons.Foroneresolvinganymajorissuesassociatedwiththereferencesandcompletingthedetailedcorrectionsandadjustmentsoftenrequiredinreferencesbeforeyoutackleotheraspectsofanarticlecanallowyoutofocusmoreeffectivelyinthenextstageontheformatcontentandargumentofthepaperitselfwithoutbecomingdistractedbyerrorsorinconsistenciesinthereferences.Secondlydealingwiththereferencesfirstcanprovideacursorybutusefuloverviewviatitlesauthorspublishersetc.ofthescholarshipandterminologyassociatedwiththetopicofthepaperorwiththefieldofstudymorewidelywhichisparticularlyhelpfulwhenreadinganarticleonatopicorinadisciplinethatisatallunfamiliartoyou.Thirdlyworkingonthereferencesfirstcanalsoprovideanoverviewoftheauthorsmethodsandprecisionorlackthereof.TheexactitudeandthoroughnesswithwhichauthorsrecordreferencesandcitationsarenotofcoursealwaysatrueindicationoftheexactitudeandthoroughnesswithwhichtheypresentotheraspectsoftheirscholarshipinfactthedifferencebetweenthetwocansometimesbestartlingbuttheycanbeandbecausereferencesoratleastagoodselectionofthemcanusuallybecheckedonlinetheyprovideCHAPTER3 58anexcellentwaytochecktheauthorsworkandthusprepareyourselfforsimilarpatternsandtrendsinotherpartsofthepaper.Soevenifcheckingandcorrectingreferencesfirstisnotyourusualapproachyoumaywanttogiveitatrytoseeifitmightworkaswellforyouasitdoesforme.3.1ObservingJournalGuidelinesAccuratelyThoroughlyConsistentlyandWiselyInmanywayshavingspecificguidelinestofollowmakestheproofreadingofreferenceseasyandstraightforwardandthemoredetailedtheguidelinesthebetter.Howeverwhilethisisalwaysthecaseintheoreticaltermsattimesdecipheringjournalguidelinestodeterminetheprecisestyleofreferencesrequiredcanbenotoriouslytrickyandwhilemoreinformationcanbehelpfulitcanalsopresentinconsistenciesandcontradictionsthatcomplicatemattersconsiderably.Journalguidelinesregardingreferencesrequireextremelycarefulandcriticalreadingwhethertheyreshortandcrypticorlonganddetailedandattentionmustbepaidtoeachandeverypointmadeandexampleprovided.Theguidelineswillinalmosteverycaseinformyouaboutthetypeofreferencingthejournalprefersnumericalorauthordateforinstanceandwillideallyprovideyouwithdetailsdirectlyorindirectlyabouthowtorecordbothin-textcitationsandcompletebibliographicalreferences.Occasionallyajournalsguidelineswillcontainnoexplicitinstructionsbutsimplyrefertheauthortosamplepaperspublishedinthejournaltodeterminethereferencingstylerequiredinwhichcasetheproofreaderiswisetoconsultandcompareatleastthreesamplepapersifpossibleinsteadofrelyingonthereferencesinasinglepaperasamodel.CHAPTER3 59Whilereadingguidelinesonreferencingspecialattentionshouldbepaidtoanyexamplesprovidedbythejournalexaminingthemnotonlyforconsistentpatternsofpresentationorderofelementspunctuationcapitalisationetc.butalsoforanyinconsistenciesinthesepatterns.Errorscancreepintotheinstructionsforauthorsprovidedbyjournalsjustastheycanintoanydocumentandreferenceexamplesinwhichauthorsandproofreaderstendtoseektheutmostprecisionareunfortunatelyoftenthesiteofsucherrors.Ifyoudodiscoverinconsistenciesofthissortafullstopsayafterdatesinthereferencelistinsomeexamplesbutnotinallofthemyoushouldtakealookatwhattheauthorhasdoneandassumingheorshehasobservedoneofthemethodsshownintheguidelinesconsistentlyoratleastmoreconsistentlythantheotherthatwouldbethestyletoconformtoasyoumakenecessaryadjustments.Ifontheotherhandtheauthorsusageconformstoneitherstyleyoullneedtomakeadecisionregardingthebestpolicyforthepaperinrelationtothemostprominentusageinthejournalsexamplesinrelationtotheoverallstyleprovidedbythejournalandorinrelationtothenatureoftheauthorsreferencesasawhole.Anapproachinvolvingbothpracticalityandsoundjudgementiscertainlyrequiredwhentheproofreaderhastomakedecisionsaboutthestyleandformatofreferencesandthemoreinconsistentandincompletetheauthorsreferencesthemorethesefactorswillcomeintoplay.ThissortofapproachisoftennecessarywhenyoureworkingwithoutguidelinesandfollowinganauthorsownmethodstoproduceinternalconsistencyamongthereferencesinapaperseeSection3.2foradetaileddiscussionofthisbutitcanbeusefulinothersituationsaswell.WhattheproofreadershouldnotdohoweverwhetherfollowingguidelinesortheauthorsusageiscompletelyrewriteorrestructureanauthorsreferencesthatistheauthorsorhisorherassistantsCHAPTER3 60job.Soletssaytheauthorhasusedauthordatereferencesbuttheguidelinescallfornumericalreferences.Iftheauthorssystemconformsforthemostparttowhattheguidelinesrequireandonlyacoupleofreferencesareauthordatevestigesperhapsoftheauthorsoriginalsystemwhichheorshehaschangedinresponsetotheguidelinesmissingthesetwocitationsintheprocessyoumaywanttochangethembutyouneedtobeverycareful.AsyoullseeinSection3.1.3belowanyalterationstonumericalreferencescannecessitatechangestoallsubsequentcitationsandreferencesinboththetextandthelist.Soifthestrayauthordatereferencesinsuchasituationrefertosourcesthatareinfactalreadynumberedandintheirproperplacesinthelistitseasyenoughtoreplacetheparentheticalauthordatecitationsinthetextwiththeappropriatenumbers.Howeverifthesourcesofsuchincorrectreferencesarenotalreadyincludedinthenumericallistthefullbibliographicalreferenceswillneedtobeaddedandsubsequentreferencesinboththelistandthetextwillrequirerevisionsothein-textanomaliesshouldsimplybepointedouttotheauthorinacommentideallyonethatalsoexplainswhatisrequired.Thisisthewisestapproachwhenproofreadingacademicandscientificarticlesformorethanonereason.Firstmakingchangesofthiskindaccuratelyandthoroughlycanproveimpossibleinmanycaseswhenforexamplefullbibliographicalreferencesarenotprovidedinthelistitsgoingtobemorethanachallengetoaddthemandevenifasurnameanddateenableyoutofindasourceitsdifficulttobecertainthatitstherightsourceyetifyouaregoingtomakesuchchangesyoushoulddosoaccuratelyandthoroughly.SecondthekindsofchangesrequiredinreferencesareoftenfinickyandcorrectionsalwaysneedtobeabsolutelyprecisesothereisagreaterpossibilityofintroducingerrorsintoreferenceswhenworkingtocorrectthemthananyoneexceptaCHAPTER3 61proofreaderoreditorwhohasturnedasincerecriticaleyeonhisorherownworkcanimagine.Whiletheriskmustberuntomakechangesyourecertainaboutreferencesarenotanappropriatesiteforguessworkwhichcanoftenbecomeatimewasterforbothproofreaderandauthor.Iferrorsareintroducedandrememberthatmakingincompletechangesespeciallywithoutadequatecommentarytofacilitatetheauthorscompletionoftherevisioncanbetantamounttointroducingerrorsitwouldhavebeenbetterhadtheoriginalinconsistenciesremained.Thirdtheauthorsyoureworkingforareprofessionalwriterswhosecareerscanbedamagedbyerrorsandmisleadinginformationinimportantaspectsofpublicationsandreferencesareveryimportantaspectsofacademicandscientificarticleswhichiswhyjournalguidelinesinsistontheneedforfullandaccuratereferencesandoftenprovidedetailedinformationabouthowtoformatthem.Theauthorisalsoresponsibleforpreciselywherereferencesappearinthetextbecauseitistheauthorwhohasusedtheideasmethodsresultsorwordsfromthesourcescitedinthepaper.Sowhileyoucancertainlysuggestthatareferencemightbeneededwhenthereisntoneinasentenceanditseemsthereshouldbeorsuggestthatareferenceinthemiddleofasentencebemovedtotheendorviceversayoushouldnotaddormovein-textreferencesunlessyouareabsolutelycertainthatoneismissingormisplacedandaresuretooaboutexactlywhichsourceshouldbecitedandwhereevensoyoushouldinformtheauthorofthechangeoraddition.Youshouldalsoinformtheauthorifheorshedirectlyquotesorseemstoquoteasourcebutnoreferenceandorpagenumberhasbeencitedbecauseareferencewithapagenumberorotherindicationofthepassageslocationwithinasourceisalwaysrequiredinsuchcases.SomejournalsprovidestrictguidelinesonwherereferencesshouldbeplacedonlyattheCHAPTER3 62endofsentencesorparagraphsforinstancesoiftheauthorsreferencesdeviatefromtheplacementrequiredyoushouldcertainlyalerthimorhertotheproblem.Onlyifoneoraveryfewinstancesareoutofplaceandorthechangesaresimpleandstraightforwardsettingallnumericalreferencesoutsideinsteadofinsidefullstopsforexampletomeetguidelinesshouldyoucorrecttheproblemyourself.GenerallyspeakingwhileworkingwithjournalguidelinestoeditreferencesofallkindsremembertoreturntotheguidelinesfrequentlytocheckdetailsasyouworkthroughtheauthorsreferencesbibliographicalreferencesareformostreadersnotmemorablematerialanditssurprisinghowfrequentlyyoumayfindyourselfthinkingOhthereissupposedtobeacommathere.Makesurethatyoureflectatsomelengthonallpotentialchangesconsideringthewiderconsequencesofthealterationsyoureplanningandthenmakeyourdecisionsaboutwhattochangeandwhatnottochangeonthebasisofthatreflection.Allalterationsyoudodecidetomakemustbeaccurateandconsistentinbothstyleandcontentwiththeguidelinesandotherreferencesinthetextandeachandeveryonemustbecheckedcarefullynomatterhowsimpleitmaybe.FinallytheauthorshouldbeinformedabouteverythingyouvedonetohisorherreferenceswhetheryouprovideageneraldescriptionofapolicysuchasIveadjustedthepunctuationofthereferencesinyourlisttoconformtothestyleindicatedintheexamplesinthejournalguidelinesoradetailedexplanationofhowyouvedealtwithaspecificproblemforexampleUnlikethenumericalreferenceselsewhereinthepaperthisparentheticalreferenceandtheoneinthenextsentenceuseanauthordateformat.IseehoweverthatyouincludebothsourcesinyourlistinthecorrectpositionswiththecorrectnumberssoIvesimplydeletedtheauthordatecitationsandusedtheCHAPTER362 63appropriatenumbersinstead.Youmaywanttocheckthesetobesuretheyrecorrect.Theneedforscholarlyexactitudewhileworkingonreferencescannotbeoverestimatedandsincescholarlyprecisionshouldbeappliedtoallaspectsofacademicandscientificarticlesreferencesareagreatplacetocutyourproofreadingteethsotospeakandestablishsoundeditingpractices.PRSTipAlthoughcarefulattentiontobothjournalguidelinesandthepredominantusagepatternsofauthorsisabsolutelyessentialforproofreadingin-textcitationsandreferencelistssuccessfullythereisnosubstituteforasolidunderstandingofthebasicrequirementsofcompletebibliographicalreferences.Manyauthorsandproofreadersneglecttheneedforpagenumbersincompletereferencestobookchaptersforinstanceortheneedfordatesinreferencestowebsitesbutanunderstandingofwhatisrequiredforcompletebibliographicalinformationofascholarlystandardallowstheproofreadertoseethesedeficienciesinareferencelistatonce.Soundknowledgeofthesebasicsalsoenablesabettercriticalunderstandingofbothjournalguidelinesandauthorpreferences.Thefollowinglististhereforedesignedtoprovideyouwithanintroductiontothebasiccomponentsofreferencelistsbutitsalsoagoodideatofamiliariseyourselfwiththeexamplesofreferencelistsandbibliographiesinaselectionofstyleguidesandtolookthroughthepublishedlistsinbooksandarticlesfocussingontheareasanddisciplinesinwhichyoutendtowork.CHAPTER3 643.1.1TheBasicComponentsofCompleteBibliographicalReferencesRegardlessofwhichtypeandstyleofreferencingiscalledforbythejournalguidelinesyourefollowingthesamebasiccomponentsareneededinalmostallcasesinordertoproducecompletebibliographicalreferencesthekindofreferencesthatisthatshouldappearinalistofreferencesorworkscitedbothofwhichcontainonlythesourcesactuallycitedinapaperinabibliographywhichcancontainsourcesbeyondthosecitedinthepaperorinrarecasesbeselectiveandcontainonlysomeofthecitedsourcesinalistoffurtherreadingwhichneednotincludeanysourcescitedinthepaperitselforinfootnotesorendnotesiftheyareusedtoprovidefullreferences.Theseessentialcomponentsarelistedbelowalongwithsomeoftheirmostimportantcharacteristics.Exactlywhichcomponentsneedtoberecordeddiffersdependingonthetypeofsourcewithsomesourcesrequiringmoredocumentationthanothersachapteroressaywithinabookrequiresmoreinformationthanthewholebookforinstance.Sowhetherornotacomponentshouldbeincludedinaparticularreferencedependsonwhetheritisrelevanttothatparticularsourceortypeofsource.Theorderinwhichthecomponentsappearinfullreferencesvariesaswelldependingonthetypeandstyleofreferencesrequiredbytheguidelinesprovided.Somejournalsevenlimitthenumberofreferencesto20or40sourcesforinstanceanauthorcancitesometimesdependingonthetypeofpapersodocheckforanyrestrictionsofthatkindandinformtheauthorifheorshehasgoneoverthelimit.PleasenotethatinthefollowinglistIuseclientinsteadofauthorwhenImeantheauthorofthepaperyoureproofreadingtoavoidconfusionwiththeauthorswhosenamesareincludedinbibliographicalreferences.CHAPTER3 65AUTHORSNAMEthisisthenameoftheauthoroftheworkarticlebookwebsiteoranyotherkindofsourcethattheclientactuallycites.Itappearsasthefirstiteminthereferenceunlessthereisnoauthoracknowledgedinthesourceinwhichcasethetitleofthesourceoftenappearsfirstinstead.AsanalternativetoanameAnon.foranonymouscanbeusedoriftheauthorsnameisnotsuppliedinthesourcebutknownfromothersourcesthatnamecanbeplacedinsquarebracketsJonesK..Thenameofanorganisationorcorporationinsteadofanindividualauthorcanbeprovidedifrelevant.Ifmorethanoneauthorisresponsiblefortheworkmorethanoneauthorshouldbenamedeitherbylistingallauthornamesorbylistingsomeofthenamesalongwithetal.dependingontherequirementsoftheguidelinesorstyleused.AuthornamesareusuallyinvertedinreferencelistswiththesurnameappearingfirstasIhaveJonesK.aboveandanygivennamesfollowingalthoughinsomecasesonlythefirstauthorsnameisinvertedandsubsequentauthornamesappearintheusualorder.DependingonthereferencingstyleusedgivennamesmightbeincludedintheformsprovidedinthesourceorrecordedasinitialsonlyandtheentirenamesmightcontaininternalpunctuationForsterA.D.ornotSalingerRAbutcommasshouldalwaysappearbetweenthenamesofseparateauthorsForsterADSalingerRAandinsomecasesanampersandorandshouldappearinsteadoforalongwithacommabetweenthelasttwonames.EDITORSNAMEthisshouldappearinsteadoftheauthorsnameifthereferenceistoaneditedbookthewholebookthatisratherthanpartofit.Theformatofeditornamesinvertedornotinternalpunctuationinitialsorfullgivennamesetc.shouldbethesameasthatofanyauthornamesinthelist.IfmorethanoneeditorisresponsiblefortheworkthenmoreCHAPTER3 66thanoneeditorshouldbenamedeitherbylistingallnamesorbylistingsomeofthenamesalongwithetal.dependingliketheauthornamesontherequirementsoftheguidelinesorstyleused.Someconferenceproceedingsandothergrouppublicationsmaynothavenamededitorsinwhichcasenoeditornameisrequiredandthereferenceislikelytoappearunderthenameoftheauthorwhowrotethepartofthecollectionthatsactuallycitedinthepaperorunderthetitleofthebookifthewholebookisintended.AneditorsnameshouldbeaccompaniedbyEd.ored.foreditorwiththepluralformsusuallybeingEds.andeds.ontheseandotherabbreviationscommonlyusedinreferencesseeSection5.2.2below.TRANSLATORSNAMEifasourceisatranslationthetranslatorsnameshouldappearaswellasthenameoftheoriginalauthor.Atranslatorshouldbeidentifiedbytr.ortrans.eitherbeforeorafterthenamewhichshoulduseinitialsorfullgivennamesandinternalpunctuationornotdependingonguidelinesandtheformatusedinthelistforauthorandeditornames.ThetranslatorsnameusuallyappearsafterthetitleofthesourceratherthanbeforeithoweverandthenameoftenisntinvertedinthispositionSaporoA.C.CitingTranslatorstrans.D.B.Smiththoughitcanbeseebelowforthesimilartreatmentofthenamesofeditorswhenrecordingabookinwhichasourceiscontained.IftheoriginalauthorsnameisincludedinthetitleofatranslatedbookthetranslatorsnamecanappearintheinitialpositionusuallyoccupiedbythenameoftheauthorJonesS.D.trans.PlatosRepublicinwhichcasethenameisinverted.TITLEOFTHEWORKthisisthetitleoftheworkarticlechapterbookwebsiteoranyotherkindofsourcethattheclientactuallycites.ItwasonceconventionaltosetbooktitlesCHAPTER3 67initalicsorunderscorethemandarticletitlesinquotationmarkssingleordoubleandsomestylesstillretainboththesemarksofdistinctionespeciallyinthehumanitiesbutmanydonot.Italicsonbooktitlesareusedmorewidelynowthanquotationmarksareonarticletitlesandoccasionallyarticletitlesappearinboldormorerarelyinitalics.Manyjournalshoweverrequiretheuseofneitherspecialfontnorquotationmarksfortitlesrelyingoncapitalisationalonetodistinguishthem.Patternsofcapitalisationcanvarywidelywithatitlebearinginitialcapitalsonlyonthefirstwordandpropernounsforinstanceoralsoonthefirstwordofthesubtitleoronallmainwordsandthecapitalisationofbooktitlescanvaryfromthatofarticletitleswithinthesamestylebutthepatternshouldbeconsistentforeachtypeoftitlethesameforexampleonallbooktitlesinthelist.ExceptionsareoftenmadefortitlesinforeignlanguagesasthecapitalisationrulesoftherelevantlanguagetendtoapplyseeforinstanceChapter12ofRitter2005fordetaileddiscussionoftheforeignlanguagesmostoftenencounteredinEnglish-languagepublication.IfanEnglishtranslationofaforeigntitleisprovideditshouldappearinparenthesesorsquarebracketsimmediatelyaftertheoriginaltitlewithallsuchtranslationsenclosedinthesametypeofbrackets.EDITIONifthesourceisabooktheeditionmayberelevantbutonlyforsecondandsubsequenteditionse.g.2ndEd.or3rdednthereisnoneedtospecifyafirsteditionofabook.Whenaneditionnumberappearsinareferenceitgenerallyappearsinconjunctionwiththetitleofthebookusuallyimmediatelyafteritandshouldappearinthesamepositioninallreferencesthatincludeaneditionnumber.Allmentionsofeditionsshouldalsousethesameformat2ndEd.forinstanceor2ndednbutnotoneinonereferenceandtheCHAPTER3 68otherinthenext.Manybooksarepublishedbydifferentpublishinghousesatdifferenttimessowiththeexceptionofdeletingmentionsoffirsteditionseditionnumbersshouldnotbeaddeddeletedorchangedunlessyoudiscoverincheckingthesourcethatadateandaneditionprovidedbytheclientdonotcoincidethenyoumaywanttomakethechangeifyourecertainoralerttheclienttotheproblemsothatheorshecancheckthesourceandmakeanynecessarycorrections.VOLUMENUMBERlikeeditionnumbersvolumenumbersusuallyappearimmediatelyafterthetitleofabookanduseastandardabbreviationusuallyVol.1orvol.2althoughRomannumeralsaresometimesusedVol.Iorvol.II.Theformatshouldbethesameforallinstances.Unlikeeditionnumbershowevervolumenumbersarerequiredforfirstvolumesaswellasanysubsequentonesalthoughaclientmayrefertoonlyonevolumeofamultivolumesetortoallvolumesintheset.InthelattercasethenumberofvolumesratherthanthevolumenumbersshouldberecordedusinganArabicnumeralafterthemaintitle3Vols.or5vols.Thevolumenumbersofconferenceproceedingsaresometimesrecordedinthesamewayastheyareforbooksandsometimesviathemethodusedforjournalvolumenumbersseebelow.BOOKINWHICHTHESOURCEISCONTAINEDifthemainreferenceistoachapteroressaywithinabookincludingconferenceproceedingsthetitleandeditorsofthebookaswellasthepagenumbersonwhichthechapteroressaycanbefoundmustbeincludedinthereferenceaswell.Theseoftenappearinoneclusterseparatedbycommas.Thebooktitlegenerallyappearsimmediatelyafterthechapteroressaytitleandusesthesameformatcapitalisationitalicsornotetc.asthetitlesofbookscitedasmainratherthancontainingsourceselsewhereinthereferences.CHAPTER3 69Theeditorsnameusuallyfollowsthebooktitlealthoughitoccasionallycomesbeforethetitleinstead.EditornamesoftenbutnotalwaysappearwiththesurnamelastinthissituationevenifthenamesofauthorsandeditorsarenormallyinvertedwhenatthebeginningofreferencesseetheeditornamesintheexamplesofafullbibliographicalreferenceindifferentstylesthatIprovideinSections3.1.23.1.3belowbutotherwisetheyusethesameformatinitialsonlyinternalpunctuationornotetc.astheauthorandeditornamesassociatedwiththemainsources.Ed.ored.foreditorEds.andeds.forthepluralshouldaccompanythenamedependingonwhichformisusedforeditorsinotherreferencesinthelistalthoughsometimeseditedbyisusedinsteadfortheeditorsofbookscontainingthemainsourcecited.Anyvolumeoreditionnumbersrelevanttothebookshouldbeincludedaswellandpagenumbersfortheessayorchaptershouldfollowalthoughsometimespagenumbersareinsteadplacedattheendofthereferenceafterthepublisherandplaceofpublication.Pagenumberformatsvarybutpp.orppforpagesisoftenusedalongwiththepagenumbersofbookspp.625thatisinsteadofsimply625withafewexceptionswhiletheabbreviationisalmostneverusedwiththepagenumbersofjournals.Otherwisetheformatofpagerangesforbooksshouldbethesameasthatforjournals.JOURNALINWHICHTHESOURCEISCONTAINEDifthemainreferenceistoanarticleinajournalthetitleofthejournaltherelevantvolumenumbersometimestheissuenumberandeitherthepagesonwhichthearticleisfoundoranotherkindofidentifierforlocatingthearticleonlinearerequired.ThejournaltitleisalwaysnecessaryandmostoftenappearsCHAPTER3 70initalicsthoughromanfontandmorerarelyboldfontareusedinsomestylesandfeaturesinitialcapitalsonallmainwords.StandardabbreviationsforjournaltitlesfollowingforinstancetheNLMCatalogofJournalsReferencedintheNCBIDatabasescanbeusedandjournalguidelineswilloftenindicatewhethertheseareacceptableandwhichsystemshouldbefollowed.Aswithallelementsofthereferencelisttheuseofjournalabbreviationsshouldbeasconsistentaspossiblethroughoutthelist.Thetitleofthejournalshouldprecedethevolumeissueandpagenumbers.Thevolumenumberisalsostandardandfollowsthejournaltitle.Punctuationcanappearbetweenthetitleandvolumenumberacommaforinstanceorafullstopafteranabbreviatedtitlebutitgenerallydoesnot.UsuallythevolumenumberisrecordedinArabicnumeralsbutRomannumeralsarespecifiedinsomeguidelinesandgenerallyromanfontisusedbutsomestylesandjournalscallforvolumenumbersinitalicorboldfont.Ifthejournalusescontinuouspagenumberingforeachvolumeanissuenumberisnotrequiredthoughitcanbeuseddependingonclientpreferencesandjournalguidelinesbutifthepagenumberingbeginsafreshineachissueofavolumetheissuenumberisnecessaryforreaderstofindtherelevantarticle.IssuenumbersarerarelymentionedinjournalguidelinesbuttheissuenumberforasourceusuallyappearsinparenthesesimmediatelyafterthevolumenumberBMCPublicHealth2467thoughitcanappearinthesamepositionafterotherpunctuatione.g.BMCPublicHealth2467.SometimesthereisasupplementnumberaswellwhichcanreplacetheissuenumberorappearinadditiontoitasimpleS.orbetteryetCHAPTER3 71Suppl.isgenerallyusedtodistinguishasupplementnumber.Pagenumbersortheirequivalentarealwaysrequiredandinalmostallcasespp.orppforpagesisnotincludedwhenrecordingthepagerangesforjournalarticlesthoughthereistheoddexception.ThepagerangefollowsthevolumenumberorissuenumberifoneisincludedusuallyseparatedfromtheprecedingnumberbyacolonBMCPublicHealth24676288thoughacommaorsemicolonissometimesusedinstead.Theformatofpagerangesvariesdependingontheguidelinesorstylefollowedbutwiththeexceptionofnotusingtheabbreviationforpagesitshouldbethesameasthatusedforanypagerangesinbooksincludedinthelist.Forarticlespublishedonlineasinglepagenumberorsomeotherformofuniquenumberthatidentifiesthearticleissometimesused.WhenanonlineversionofanarticleisusedasasourceaDOIdigitalobjectidentifierorURLuniformresourcelocatorisfrequentlyusedinsteadofpagenumbersandsometimesinsteadofvolumeandissuenumbersaswellwhenelectronicpublicationprecedesprintpublication.DOIsandURLsshouldbeconsistentinformatthroughoutthelistandcorrectsothattheyreliablyleadthereadertotherightsources.WhenaURLisusedinformationonaccessoravailabilityisoftenneededjustasitisforotherweb-basedsourceswithitsformatdependingonthestyleorguidelinesfollowedforexampleAccessed10Mar2014orAvailableathttp....PAGENUMBERSpagenumbersarerequiredwhenthereferenceistoachapterorarticlewithinalargerbookjournalorcollectionofconferencepapersinwhichcasethepagesonwhichthechapterorarticleisfoundshouldbeprovided.ForCHAPTER3 72pagenumbersinbooksppforpageswithorwithoutafollowingstopandspaceisgenerallyusedalongwiththenumberspp.625orpp625butnotalways.Forjournalsthepracticeisjusttheoppositepagenumbersgenerallyappearwithoutanyformofpp.thoughthatabbreviationisusedinrarecases.BetweenthenumbersthemselvesanendashasIhaveintheexamplesaboveisthecorrectchoicebutahyphenpp.6-25isoftenusedaslongastheguidelinesarefollowedeitherisfine.Thepagerangecanberecordedwithalldigitsretained383388butinmanycasesthenumbersareelidedtoasfewdigitsaspossible3838forfurtherinformationonelidingpagerangesandotherformattingissuesassociatedwithnumbersseeSection4.3.1below.Thecommasorinsomeinstancesspacesnormallyfoundinnumeralsof1000andabovearenotusedinpagenumbers.Whetherdependentonguidelinesortheclientsusagetheformatsofpagenumbersshouldbeconsistentthroughoutareferencelistbutthepositioncanchangedependingonthetypeofsourceforjournalarticlesforinstancepagenumbersappearattheendofareferencebutforchaptersorarticlesinbookstheycanappeareitherattheendorinconjunctionwiththebooktitleandeditor.Sometimesotheridentifyingnumbersareusedinsteadofpagenumbersespeciallyforarticlespublishedonlineandiftherearenopagenumbersforasourcewithinabookorjournalchaptersectionandevenparagraphnumberscanbeusedinsteadalthoughasageneralrulesuchnumbersshouldonlybeusediftheyactuallyappearinthesourcee.g.iftheparagraphsareactuallynumberedinthesource.DATEallreferencesshouldifatallpossiblecontainadateofpublicationwhichshouldbethedateoftheeditionorversionactuallyusedbytheclient.Ifthesourcedoesnotbearadaten.d.fornodatecanbeusedorifthedateisknownfromCHAPTER3 73othersourcesitcanbeprovidedinsquarebrackets2014.ThedatecanappearinavarietyofdifferentplaceswithinareferencefromimmediatelyaftertheauthorsnameanecessityinauthordatereferencingseeSection3.1.2belowtoafterthepublicationinformationattheveryendofthereference.Ifthedatedoesnotappearaftertheauthorsnameinjournalreferencesitgenerallyappearsinconjunctionwiththejournaltitleandvolumenumber.Punctuationarounddatesvarieswidelybutpublicationdatesareoftenenclosedinparentheses2014.Sourcessuchasmultivolumeworkspublishedovermorethanoneyearshouldberecordedasadaterange19621975whichcanbeelided196275mostcorrectlyanenruleisusedbetweenthedatesasintheprecedingexamplesbutahyphenisoftenusedinstead1962-75.Whateverformatsarechosenshouldbeusedconsistentlythroughoutthelist.Thepublicationdateofnewspaperarticlesandjournalarticlespublishedonlinepriortoprintpublicationtendtousefulldatesratherthantheyearaloneandthesedatescantakedifferentforms16March2014inBritishEnglishforexampleandMarch162014inAmericanEnglish.Thedatesrecordedforwebsitescanvarydateoffirstpublicationdateofmostrecentupdateortheclientslatestaccessdateforinstanceascantheformatandmorethanoneofthesedatesmaybeprovided.PUBLISHERANDPLACEOFPUBLICATIONforreferencestobooksboththepublishersnameandthecityofpublicationareprovidedinmanycasesbuteitheroneofthesewillsufficedependingontheguidelinesused.UsuallytheplaceofpublicationprecedesthepublishersnamewiththetwoseparatedbyacolonbutthisisntalwaysthecasethepublishersnamecanprecedetheplaceofpublicationandasemicolonorcommacanbeusedtoseparatethepublishersCHAPTER3 74namefromtheplaceofpublication.BothelementstendtoappearattheendofareferenceandareoftenenclosedinparenthesessometimesalongwiththepublicationdateOxfordOxfordUniversityPress2013.ModernEnglishformsofcitynamesshouldbeusedifpossibleandifthecityofpublicationisnotawell-knowncentreanabbreviationoroccasionallyafullnameindicatingthecountrystateprovinceorthelikeusuallyfollowsandthisshouldespeciallybeusedifthereisapotentialforconfusionregardingthecityintendedCambridgeMAasopposedtotheCambridgeinEngland.Generallyspeakingonlythenameofthefirstcitynotedonthetitleorcopyrightpageofabookisrequired.AlthoughusingthefullnameofapublisheristheusualpracticeandsomeguidelineswillaskthatpublishernamesnotbeshortenedinanywaythepublishersnameissometimesreducedtotheshortestformpossiblewithoutabbreviatingtheindividualwordsRutgersinsteadofRutgersUniversityPressandsometimespresseswithnamesbasedontheirlocationcanbeprovidedinanabbreviatedformOUPinsteadofOxfordUniversityPressaslongastheplaceofpublicationisincluded.Theplaceofpublicationandorthenameofthepublishershouldbeusedconsistentlyinallrelevantreferencesandinaconsistentformatinallcases.TYPEOFSOURCEalthoughitsrarethetypeofsourceisoccasionallyindicatedbywordssuchasPrintWebTelevisionCDDVDVideocassetteandSlide.Therelevantwordusuallyappearsatorveryneartheendofthereference.CONFERENCEPAPERifitispublishedinaconferencecollectionorproceedingsaconferencepaperisusuallyrecordedinthesamewayasachapteroressayinabookoroccasionallyasanarticleinajournalcitingpagenumbersinCHAPTER3 75eithercaseandsometimesincludingdetailsabouttheconferenceitselfthedateandlocationoftheconferenceforexampleaswell.Whenunpublishedconferencepapersarecitedhowevertheauthorsnameandthetitleofthepapershouldbeaccompaniedbytheconferencenamelocationdateandanyotherrelevantinformationabouttheconference.THESISORDISSERTATIONalthoughtreatedinmostcasesmuchlikeabookthetitlesofthesesanddissertationscanusetheformatofeitherbookorarticletitlesusingitalicsorquotationmarksfullorpartialcapitalisationetc.oraformatthatdiffersslightlyfrombothdependingontheguidelinesused.Insteadofthepublicationinformationprovidedforbooksplaceofpublicationpublisherandpublicationdatethetypeofdegreetheuniversityandsometimesthedepartmentthatgrantedthedegreeandthedatethethesisordissertationwascompletedshouldbesupplied.CommasareusuallyusedbetweentheseelementsD.Phil.UniversityofYork1998butsemicolonscanbeusedinsteadandacoloncanappearbeforethedate.AUDIOVISUALSOURCESwhenconstructingreferencesforCDsDVDsworksofartslidesandotheraudiovisualsourcesarangeofrelevantinformationcanbeprovidedthenamesofartistsdirectorsandproducersthetitlesofsongsCDspaintingsandtelevisionprogrammesandthepublishersandplacesanddatesofpublication.Thenamesofthoseresponsibleforcreatingthesourceshouldbetreatedasauthornamesareinothersources.Titlesshouldusetheformatsindicatedintheguidelinesandorotherreferenceswiththetitleofanindividualsongorepisodeofatelevisionprogrammeforinstanceusingtheformatcapitalisationquotationmarksetc.usedforchapterorarticletitleswhilethetitleoftheCDorthetelevisionprogrammeusestheformatusedforthetitlesofCHAPTER3 76books.Similarlythepublicationinformationforsuchsourcesshouldberecordedinthesameformatandorderasthepublicationinformationforbooksinthelist.WEBSITEWEBPAGEorONLINEDOCUMENTasafairlyrecentadditiontobibliographicallistsreferencestowebsiteswebpagesandonlinedocumentstendtovarymorethanotherreferencesandthemyriadformsofwebsourcesincreasethisvariation.Authornamesbothindividualandcorporateshouldbeincludedifavailableasshouldthetitlesofwebsiteswebpagesandindividualdocumentsoftenincombinationwitheachotherdependingonwhatelementsmayberelevantandorrequiredbytheguidelines.Publisherversionandupdateinformationcanbeprovidedandatleastonedateinsomecasesmorethanoneshouldbeincludedwhetheritsthedateofpublicationthemostrecentupdateofthewebsiteorthelatestdateonwhichtheclientaccessedthesource.Thesedatestendtobegiveninfull24April2013BritishorApril242013AmericanratherthanasyearsonlyandinthecaseofaccessdatesoftenincludesomedefininginformationsuchasAccessed24April2013.EitheraURLorinthecaseofsomeindependentwebdocumentsaDOImustbeprovidedinalmostallinstancesandforURLsguidelinesfrequentlyrequiresomethinglikeAvailableathttp....aswell.URLsareoftenunderlinedWordtendstodothisautomaticallychangingthetexttoahyperlinkwhenitrecognisesawebaddresswhichmakesthemoneoftheveryfewelementsofformalwritingthatstilluseunderscoring.Asageneralruletheinformationprovidedforwebsitesandthelikeshouldbeasthoroughandspecificasrequiredtodocumentthesourceaccuratelyandleadthereadertoit.CHAPTER3 773.1.2AuthorDateandOtherReferencesBasedonAuthorNamesAuthordatereferencesareextremelycommoninacademicandscientificarticlesandareusedinawiderangeofdisciplinessoyouarelikelytoencounterthemfrequentlywhileproofreadingscholarlypapers.Thebasiccomponentsofin-textauthordatecitationsarethesurnameoftheauthororsurnamesoftheauthorsiftherearemorethanoneandthepublicationdateofthesource.ThisinformationcanbeprovidedentirelyinparenthesesoroccasionallysquarebracketsiftheguidelinescallfortheminsteadArecenttrialJacobson2013showedorbymentioningtheauthorsnameinthemaintextandincludingthedateinparenthesesJacobsonstrial2013showed.EitherwaytheparentheticalauthordatecitationsshouldbeappropriatelypositionedinrelationtothepunctuationofsentencesgenerallybeforeanypunctuationmarksforexampleAccordingtoSmith2010atherewasasignificantdifferenceandjustasarecentstudyhasshownSmith2012.WhentwoormorereferencestoworksbythesameauthorareprovidedwithinasinglesetofparenthesesthedatesshouldbearrangedchronologicallyandseparatedbycommaseitherJacobson201020122013ormorerarelytheotherwayaroundasinJacobson201320122010butnotJacobson201220102013andtheorderusedinthein-textcitationsshouldmatchthatusedinthereferencelistwhichisusuallygiventheheadingReferencesinanauthordatesystemofreferencing.IfreferencestodifferentauthorsareprovidedwithinasinglesetofparenthesestheindividualcitationsareusuallyseparatedbysemicolonsandinmostcasesarrangedeitheralphabeticallybyauthornameJacobson2013McGuire2003McGuireSmith2001Stanley20092013withtheordermatchingtheirorderCHAPTER3 78inthereferencelistorchronologicallybypublicationdateMcGuireSmith2001McGuire2003Stanley20092013Jacobson2013.Adifferentordermayberequiredforparticularsituationsandspecificreasonsbecauseforinstancethesourceactuallyquotedinasentenceiscitedfirstthoughalphabeticallyorchronologicallyitwouldnotcomefirstandsomeguidelinesleavetheorderfortheauthortodetermine.Whicheverorderisusedinwhicheverstylespecificjournalguidelinesshouldbeaccommodatedandthepatterndecideduponshouldbeusedasconsistentlyaspossiblethroughoutthepaper.Therearevariousotherdifferencesbetweentheindividualstylesofauthordatereferences.SomeuseacommabetweentheauthorsnameandthedateJacobson2013andsomedonotJacobson2013.SomeuseanampersandwhileothersuseandbetweenthelasttwoauthornamesforsourceswithmorethanoneauthorandthistendstobemaintainedinthereferencelistbetweenthenamesofthelasttwoauthorsofasourcebutasageneralruleandshouldbeusedinthemaintextMcGuireandSmith2001arguethatevenifanampersandisusedparentheticallyMcGuireSmith2001.Theuseofetal.meaningandothersandreferringtoadditionalauthorsofasourcewhohavenotbeennamedalsovariesfromstyletostyleinin-textcitationsinChicagoandHarvardreferencingforinstanceetal.shouldbeusedafterthefirstauthorsnameifthesourcehasfourormoreauthorsthoughHarvardstylealsoallowstheuseofetal.whenasourcehasonlythreeauthors.Chicagostyleusesafullstopafteretal.Johnsonetal.2006whereasHarvardreferencingdoesnotJohnsonetal2006.Sometimesetal.appearsinitalicfontbutthisisusuallynotnecessaryandtendstobearequirementofafewspecificCHAPTER3 79journals.InAPAstyleetal.isfollowedbyafullstopanditalicsarenotrequiredbutwhentouseetal.isalittlemorecomplicated.IfasourcehasthreetofiveauthorsallauthorsshouldbelistedforthefirstcitationinapaperJohnsonJonesSmithPeters2008butallsubsequentin-textreferencesshoulduseonlythefirstauthorsnamefollowedbyetal.Johnsonetal.2008.Thismeansthatspecialcareneedstobetakentoensurethateachcitationappearsinthecorrectformat.ForsixormoreauthorsontheotherhandAPAstyleusesetal.afterthefirstauthorsnameinallreferencestothesourceincludingthefirstoneformoreinformationonetal.seeSection5.2.2below.IftwoormoresourceswiththesamedateandbythesameauthororbythesameauthorsinthesameorderarecitedtheyneedtobedistinguishedandthisisgenerallydonebyaddingalowercaselettertoeachdateregardlessofwhichauthordatereferencingstyleyoureusingStanley2009a2009b.Thesesamelettersshouldappearalongwiththedatesofthesamesourcesinthereferencelistsothatthein-textreferencessuccessfullymatchandthusleadreaderstothecorrectsourceineverycase.AlsonecessarytoallowreaderstofindthefullbibliographicalinformationoneachsourceinanauthordatesystemistheappearanceofthepublicationdateimmediatelyaftertheauthorsnameinthecorrespondingreferenceinthelistJacobsonJ.D.2013.Everythingabouttheauthoranddateinformationprovidedbyin-textcitationswithinapapermustcorrespondexactlywiththesameinformationintheaccompanyinglistsoauthornamesandpublicationdatesshouldbecarefullycomparedbetweenthein-textcitationsandthelistofreferencestoensureabsoluteaccuracy.Whenasourceisquoteddirectlyinauthordatereferencingapagenumberorpagenumbersisrequiredinthein-textcitation.CHAPTER3 80Theuseofp.forpageorpp.forpagesandthepunctuationassociatedwithcitingpagenumberscommascolonsfullstopshyphensandenrulesvaryaccordingtothestyleorguidelinesfollowedasdoesthespacingbetweentheelementsofpagecitations.InAPAstyleforexampleJacobson2010p.33wouldbecorrectandformultiplepagesJacobson2013pp.33-34iscorrectbutinChicagostyleitwouldbeJacobson201333andformultiplepagesJacobson20133334whereasHarvardstyleusesJacobson2013p.33andformultiplepagesJacobson2013pp.33-34.ModernLanguageAssociationMLAstylediffersstillfurtherbecausealthoughitusesauthornamesforin-textcitationswhetherparentheticallyorinthemainpartofthesentenceitdoesnotuseadatebutcitesapagenumberalongwiththeauthorsnameevenwhenthereisnodirectquotationJacobson33andformultiplepagesJacobson33-34andashorttitlecanbeaddedifnecessarytodistinguishworksbythesameauthor.PagenumberscanbeelidedinmoststylesiftheguidelinesorexamplesprovidedindicatethisJacobson2013pp.334justastheyareinfullbibliographicalreferencesinthelistseetheinformationonpagenumbersinSection3.1.1aboveandthediscussionofnumbersinSection4.3.1below.IfthesourcequoteddoesnothavepagenumbersasisthecasewithmanyonlinesourcesotherindicatorsofthepreciselocationofaquotedpassagecanbeprovidedtoenablethereadertofindthepassageSmith2007Discussionsectionpara.4isagoodAPAexample.Becausethereissuchextensivevarietyinthedetailsrequiredbydifferentstylesandguidelinesevenwithinasingletypeofreferencingsuchasauthordatereferencesthepreciseformattobeusedinanygivenpaperneedstobeattendedtowithgreatcare.AlldetailsprovidedintherelevantguidelinesandexamplesmustCHAPTER3 81beobservedandthencheckedfrequentlyasthereferencesbothinthetextandinthelistareproofread.TomaketheprocessofproofreadingreferencesasstraightforwardaspossibleIgenerallycheckthereferencelistfirst.Asthisiswherethecompletebibliographicalinformationisprovideditiswherethedifferentelementsofthereferencesareestablishedforthepaperanditisusuallyinconjunctionwithproofreadingthereferencelistthattheinformationtheauthorhasprovidedforthesourcesischeckedagainstinformationonthesamesourcesfoundelsewherepredominantlyonline.Thereisnoneedofcoursetolookupeverysourceonlineandnotallsourcescanbefoundinthiswayinanycasebutitsgoodtocheckafewattheveryleastideallyofdifferentkindsabookanarticleandawebsiteforinstancetodeterminehowaccuratetheauthorsworkinthisregardtendstobeandanyinformationinthereferencesthatseemsoddsuspectincorrectinconsistentandthelikeshoulddefinitelybecheckedorcommentedonifthesourcecannotbefound.Ifawebsitewebpageorweb-baseddocumentcannotbefoundviatheURLorDOIprovidedinformtheauthoroftheproblemsothatheorshecancheckandcorrecttheinformationifnecessary.Whenchangesareneededtoconformtotherelevantguidelinestoaddnecessaryordeleteextraneousinformationandortocorrecterrorsintheinformationprovidedtheauthorshouldasageneralrulebeinformed.CommentscanbeattachedtoasingleexamplebutapplythroughoutthelistPublicationdatesintheAPAstyleusedbythejournalshouldbeenclosedinparenthesessoIveaddedparenthesesaroundallpublicationdatesinyourlistortheycantargetaspecificprobleminoneparticularreferenceIfindthetitleofthisbookwithasubtitleaswellbutthesubtitletakestwodifferentformswithandwithoutadaterangeintheinformationIvediscoveredsopleasecheckyoursourceandaddCHAPTER3 82thesubtitleintheappropriateformfortheversionyouveused.Youneedntcommentoneverytinychangeofcourseifyoureadjustingcapitalisationorpunctuationorfontstyleinoneorafewinstancestomatchthatappearingelsewhereinthelistnocommentisgenerallynecessarybutclearandopencommunicationwiththeauthorisfarmoreeffectivethanalackofcommentarythatcanleavetheauthorwonderingwhyyouvetinkeredwithwhatheorshethoughtcompletelyacceptablereferences.Theprecisestructureandformatoffullbibliographicalreferencesforreferencingstylesbasedonauthorsurnamesvarybutauthornamescomefirstineachreferencewiththefirstauthorsnamealwaysinvertedandanyothernamesusuallytreatedinthesameway.AsImentionedaboveauthornamesshouldbefollowedimmediatelybythedateofpublicationasthisenablesthereadertolocatethefullreferencewitheasebasedontheauthordatecitationswithinthemaintext.Inthefollowingexamplesareferencetoachapterinaneditedbookispresentedinfourdifferentstylesbasedonauthornamesthefirstthreeareauthordateandthelastisauthorpagenumber.APAauthordateHardmanP.2003.PresentingthetextPictorialtraditioninfifteenth-centurymanuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InW.K.FinleyJ.RosenblumEds.ChaucerillustratedFivehundredyearsoftheCanterburyTalesinpicturespp.37-72.NewCastleDEOakKnollPress.ChicagowithReferenceListauthordateHardmanPhillipa.2003.PresentingtheTextPictorialTraditioninFifteenth-CenturyManuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictureseditedbyWilliamK.FinleyandJosephRosenblum3772.NewCastleDEOakKnollPress.CHAPTER3 83HarvardauthordateHardmanP.2003PresentingthetextPictorialtraditioninfifteenth-centurymanuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InFinleyW.K.RosenblumJ.eds.ChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures.NewCastleDEOakKnollPresspp.37-72.MLAauthorpagenumberorauthorshorttitlepagenumberifnecessaryHardmanPhillipa.PresentingtheTextPictorialTraditioninFifteenth-CenturyManuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.ChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures.Ed.WilliamK.FinleyandJosephRosenblum.NewCastleDEOakKnollPress2003.37-72.Print.Alphabeticalorderaccordingtoauthornamesmustbeobservedinauthordatereferencelistsasinclusteredparentheticalauthordatereferenceswithinthetextandalthoughmanyaspectsofanalphabeticalarrangementarestraightforwardothersrequireconsiderationoftheminutedetailsofreferencessoanyguidanceprovidedintherelevantguidelinesorstylemanualshouldbefollowed.GenerallyspeakingworksbythesameauthororsameauthorsappearinginthesameorderineachcaseshouldbearrangedchronologicallyascendingorderJacobsonS.2010beforeJacobsonS.2012ordescendingorderJacobsonS.2012beforeJacobsonS.2010canbeuseddependingonthestyleandguidelinesbutthesystemmustbeconsistentlyappliedtoallrelevantinstancesthroughoutthelist.Ifanauthoristhesingleauthorofworksaswellasthefirstauthorofmultiauthorworksthesingle-authoredworksshouldbelistedbeforethecoauthoredonesJacobsonS.beforeJacobsonS.SmithP.andwhenarrangingmultiauthorworksthatshareaninitialauthoralphabetisethemaccordingtotheadditionalsurnamesJacobsonS.DobsonD.TateN.beforeJacobsonS.SmithP.DobsonD.WhentherearenoindividualauthorsandcorporateauthorsortitlesappearCHAPTER3 84insteadofauthornamesintheinitialpositionofareferenceandnecessarilythereforeinanyin-textcitationstothatsourcetheytooshouldobservealphabeticalorderexcludinganyopeningarticlessoThePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociationwouldappearunderPnotT.Ifanabbreviationorshortenedformofacorporateauthorsnameoratitleisusedforin-textcitationsitcanbeprovidedfirstinthereferencelisttoallowforeasyidentificationbyreadersandfollowedbyafullversioninparenthesesWHOWorldHealthOrganizationinanorderoppositetothatusedwhendefiningabbreviationsinrunningtextseeSection5.2.2.onabbreviations.ForamoredetaileddiscussionofalphabeticalorderseeforinstanceSection6.25ofthePublicationManualoftheAPA2010andSection19.3ofNewHartsRulesRitter2005.Itcanbeagoodstrategytoproofreadthelistofreferencesorbibliographybeforecheckingthein-textreferencesbecauseonceyouveproofreadeditedandcommentedontheentirereferencelistyoullhaveacorrectversionofthecompletebibliographicalreferencesoratleastascorrectaversionaspossibleuntiltheauthordoeshisorherfinaleditstoworkwithasyoucheckthein-textcitationsforaccuracy.ThereismorethanonegoodmethodforperformingthischeckefficientlyofcoursebuttheoneIfindmosteffectiveisusingasplit-screenmodeonalargecomputerscreenorusingtwoseparatescreensinmycasemyworkingcomputerandmytabletsidebyside.OnmyworkingcomputerIhavetheworkingfileversionofthedocumentJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WFopentothebeginningofthepaperonthetabletIopenthesamedocumentandresaveitinthesamejobfolderwiththenameJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WF_asterisksseeAppendixI.IaddasteriskstothenamesimplybecauseIuseasteriskstomarkthereferencesasIworkbutreferencesorrefcheckandanynumberofotherCHAPTER3 85alterationstotheoriginalnamewouldworkIleavetheWFbecauseitsanotherworkingfile.IthenscrolldowntotheReferenceslistinthisnewdocumentsothatInowhavethebeginningofthepapervisibleontheworkingcomputerandthebeginningofthelistvisibleonthetablet.Ithenbegintheprocessbyscanningslowlydownthetextofthepaperonmyworkingcomputerwatchingforanythingresemblinganin-textreference.Parentheticalauthordatecitationsareactuallyveryeasytospotandtheeyegetsbetteratitwithpractice.In-textcitationsalsotendtoappearonlyincertainpartsofapapergenerallythemainbodyappendicestablesandfiguressoIfocusonthoseparts.EachtimeIcomeacrossanin-textreferenceIcheckitandcorrectitifnecessaryagainstthelistonthetabletbutitsimportantnottoassumethatthelistisnecessarilycorrectunlesstheauthornamesanddatestherehaveactuallybeencheckedonlineorotherwisewhenthelistwasproofread.Sometimesmoresourceswillhavetobecheckedatthispointandfurthererrorsinthelistmaybediscoveredandrequirecorrection.AnydiscrepanciesIcantresolveIcommentonencouragingtheauthortochecktherelevantsources.AsImdoingthisIaddtothedocumentonthetabletanasteriskatthebeginningofeachreferenceinthelistwhenIfirstfinditinthetext.IusetrackchangesinthedocumentonthetabletjustasIdointhedocumentontheworkingcomputerbutonlysothattheasterisksshowupinadifferentcolourasIwork.IfanysourcescitedinthetextarenotincludedinthelistIalerttheauthortotheproblembyselectingtherelevantin-textreferenceandofferingacommentofthissortPleasenotethatthissourcedoesnotappearinyourreferencelistsopleaseadditthere.CHAPTER3 86OnceIveworkedthroughallthein-textreferencesinthedocumentontheworkingcomputertheasteriskedlistalsorevealsthroughthelackofanasteriskonanyparticularreferenceifanysourcesincludedinthelistarentactuallycitedinthetext.SincelistsentitledReferencesandWorksCitedshouldasageneralrulecontainonlysourcesactuallycitedinthepaperIdoasearchthroughthedocumentontheworkingcomputerforthesurnamesassociatedwithanysourcethatisntmarkedwithanasteriskjusttomakesurethatIdidntmissareferenceinthetextifitturnsupinthepaperIcheckitandmarkthecorrespondingreferenceinthelistwithanasteriskbutifitdoesntIcommentonthereferenceinthelistinformingtheauthorthatthesourcehasnotbeencitedsoshouldberemovedfromthelistunlessanintendedbutmissingin-textcitationistobeadded.Thismethodofcheckingthereferencesworkswellforallin-textreferencesystemsbasedonauthorssurnamesandisespeciallyhelpfulwhencheckingcomplexsystemssuchasthatusedinAPAstyle.AsImentionedaboveinAPAreferencingsourceswiththreetofiveauthorsarecitedin-textbyusingallauthornamesforthefirstcitationbutonlythefirstauthorsnamefollowedbyetal.forsubsequentcitations.Bymarkingeachreferenceinthelistwithanasteriskorotherindicatoronfirstuseinthetextyoullbeabletodetermineataglancewhetherasourcewiththreetofiveauthorshasalreadybeencitedornotandthereforewhetheranin-textcitationtoitshoulduseallnamesoronlythefirstalongwithetal.AsmanyauthorsandeditorshavetroublewithAPAreferencesinthisregardtheasterisksystemisahelpfultechniqueandanysymbolcouldbeusedinsteadofasterisksdaggersmightbeeffectivelyvisibleforinstanceandsettherighttoneforcheckingsomereferences.CHAPTER3 87Whilecheckingthein-textreferencesinthiswayagainstthelistfortheaccuracyandconsistencyofauthorsurnamesandpublicationdatesIalsoensurethatthepunctuationandotherformatelementsofallin-textreferencesareconsistentandconformtoanyguidelinesprovided.IensurethatpagenumberreferencesarepresentwhensourcesaredirectlyquotedofferingacommenttotheauthortoaddthemiftheyrenotandImakesurethatpagereferencesappearinaconsistentformat.Itsalsogoodtocheckpagecitationsagainstthepagerangesprovidedfortherelevantsourcesinthelisttomakesurethatthefullpagerangereportedforeachsourceactuallycontainsthepagescitedwiththequotations.SometimesIdoafewpreliminarycorrectionsofquotationmarksatthispointaswellbutforthemostpartitsbesttodealwiththequotationsthemselvesinthecontextofproofreadingtheentirepaperseeSection5.3below.Ifasissometimesthecasetheauthorhasnotincludedthereferencelistwiththedocumenttobeproofreadyouwillnotbeabletocheckthein-textreferencesagainstthecompletereferencesinthelistandwhilethismaylimitwhatyoureabletodoyoucanstillcheckallin-textreferencesforconsistencyincontentandformatandensurethattheyconformtotheguidelinesorstyleused.ItmaybetrickierinsuchcasestochecksaythosesourceswiththreetofiveauthorsinAPAstylebecausetheresnolisttomarkupasyouworkmakingabrieflistauthornamesanddatesonlyinaseparatefileofthesourcesalreadycitedcanbehelpfulbutnoreferencelistalsomeansconsiderablylessbibliographicalworkwhichsomeproofreaderswillwelcomewithopenfingers.CHAPTER3 883.1.3NumericalReferencesNumericalreferencessuchasthoserequiredforaVancouverstyleofreferencingandtheguidelinesofanumberofjournalsthatcallforvariationsontheVancouversystemarerelativelycommonandusedparticularlyinthemedicalandbiologicalsciences.Althoughthein-textcitationsforthiskindofreferencingcanbeextremelyeasytoproofreadtheycanalsoquicklybecomeproblematicifevenonesourceismissedwhenthereferencesarenumberedandaddedtothelist.ThisisbecausenumericalreferencesarearrangedinnumericalorderusingArabicnumeralsveryrarelyRomannumeralsIveonlyseentheminanauthorsownreferencingsystemaccordingtowhentheyarecitedinthearticlesothefirstsourcecitedbecomesreference1thesecondreference2thethirdreference3andsoon.Eachnumberisassignedtoonesourceonlyandeachsourcehasonlyonenumberwhichitretainsthroughoutthepaper.Soforinstanceifthethirdsourcecitedinthearticleismissedinthenumberingprocessnotonlywillthatsourceneedtobenumbered3butallsourcescitedafteritwillalsoneedtoberenumberedbecausewhatwasreference3willneedtobereference4whatwasreference4willneedtobereference5andsoon.Themethodfornumberinganyreferencesthatappearintablesfiguresandothersupplementaryaspectsofanarticlediffersamongguidelinessomewouldhavesuchreferencesnumberedafterallthoseinthepaperitselfwhileothersaskthatreferencesinatableorfigurebenumberedaccordingtowherethetableorfigureismentionedinthetextorwillultimatelybeplacedinthepaper.Amisnumberedorincorrectlyformattedreferenceiseasilyidentifiedwhenconductingaquickscanthroughanarticlewithafocusondeterminingwhetherthesourcesareindeedcitedinnumericalorder.IftheproblemisanisolatedinstancewiththereferenceCHAPTER3 89misnumberedinthemaintextperhapsormaybeenteredinaninappropriateformatauthordateforinstancebutnonethelessincludedandcorrectlynumberedinthelistyoucancertainlychangethereferencetotheappropriatenumberaslongasyouresureyouknowwhatthatnumbershouldbeandtheninformtheauthorinacommentaboutwhatyouvedone.Ifhowevercorrectionwouldinvolvenotjustnumberingthatsinglereferencebutalsoaddingittothelistwhichwontbepossibleunlessyouhavethefullbibliographicalinformationwhichyouprobablywonthaveifitsnotinthelistandrenumberingallsubsequentreferencesitsbesttoalerttheauthortotheproblemandleavethatjobtohimorher.Itsnotthatsuchrenumberingisbeyondprofessionalproofreadersandtheremaybecasesinwhichyoullwanttotackleitbutitsoneofthoseinstancesinwhichthepotentialforintroducingerrorsissignificantandsincetheproofreaderdoesnotinmanycaseshavealltheinformationandisneithertheexpertintheauthorsfieldnorthepersonwhohasreadandusedallthesourcescitedinthepaperheorsheisnotthebestpersonforthatpartofthejob.Inadditionifsomethingundetectablegoeswrongoralreadywaswrongintheauthorsnumberingsystemerrorsmaywellbemagnifiedwiththeproofreaderresponsibleforsomeofthem.Yourtimeisthereforebestspentdetectingproblemsandpotentialproblemsfortheauthorwhohasalltheinformationandcanmakethedecisionsnecessarytocorrectthoseproblemsaccuratelyandthoroughly.Theformattingofnumericalreferencescanmorereadilybeadjustedfortheauthor.ThenumeralsusedforreferencesareoftenenclosedinparenthesessometimescalledroundbracketsinguidelinesandstyleguidesorprovidedinasuperscriptfontInarecentstudy1weexploredorInarecentstudy1weexplored.ThisvariesaccordingtotheguidelinesfollowedhoweverwithsomecallingforsquarebracketsinsteadInarecentstudy1weexplored.GroupsofCHAPTER3 90citationscanbegatheredtogetherinnumericalreferencingmuchastheyareinanauthordatesystemsimplybylistingthenumbersofallrelevantsourcesseparatedbycommas125812.IfthreeormoreconsecutivenumbersneedtobelistedanenruleorhyphenwiththefirstpreferableintheorybutthesecondusedfarmorefrequentlyinVancouver-stylereferencingshouldbeusedbetweenthefirstandlastnumbers1359or1-35-9.InVancouverreferencingnospacesareusedbetweenthenumbersbutsomejournalswillprovideexamplesthatdousespacessobesuretocheckthejournalguidelinesforpreciseinstructions.AswithauthordatereferencesVancouver-stylecitationsshouldbepositionedtoindicatewithaccuracytheuseofsourcesinthetextbutstandardplacementinrelationtopunctuationcallsforthereferencenumberstofollowfullstopsandcommasAccordingtoarecentstudy1theseresultsareunusualandprecedecolonsandsemicolonsThefollowinggroupswereconsideredinarecentstudy1surgicalnonsurgicalandcontrol.Againhoweverjournalguidelinessometimescallforslightlydifferentplacementbeforeinsteadofaftercommasandfullstopsforexample.Whentheauthordirectlyquotessourcespagenumbersarerequiredinthein-textnumericalcitationsjustastheyarewhenquotingwhileusingauthordatereferencing.IfthereferencenumbersappearinparenthesesorsquarebracketstheformatisSmith1p222andformultiplepagesSmith1pp222-223ifthereferencenumbersaresuperscriptSmith1p222andformultiplepagesSmith1pp222-223wouldbeappropriate.Usinganumericalsystemofreferencingdoesnotmeanthattheauthornamesanddateofpublicationassociatedwithasourcecannotbementionedinthetextiftheauthorwishestoincludethisinformationbutthattheydontneedtobeandthenumberassignedtothesourcemustalwaysappearwhetheradditionalinformationisprovidedornot.SowhileAsrecentlyasCHAPTER3 912013JacobsonwasstillexploringthisproblemisnotacceptablebecauseitprovidesonlyanauthordatereferenceAsrecentlyas2013Jacobson8wasstillexploringthisproblemisappropriatebecauseitincludesthenumberofthereferenceaswell.Whentheauthordoesprovidethiskindofadditionalinformationitshouldbecheckedforaccuracyagainsttheappropriatereferencenumber8inthisinstanceinthelist.Thisalsoprovidesanopportunitytocheckwhethertheauthorsnumberingsystemisaccuratethatreference8inthelistisindeedbyJacobsonandbearsthedate2013thatisandtoinformtheauthorofanyproblemsifitisnot.Whennumbersaloneareusedhoweverasismostoftenthecasesuchcross-checkingisntpossiblethoughcomparisonandlogiccanhelpinthedetectionofpotentialconcernsiftheauthorcallsastudyrecentforinstancebutthencitesthenumberofasourcepublishedin1950orifthetopicunderdiscussionsimplydoesnotcorrespondwiththetopicindicatedbythetitleofthesourcecitedthesearegoodindicationsthatsomethingmaybeoutoforder.Insuchcasesacommentexplainingwhatyouthinkmaybeaproblemcanbeoffered.Eventhiswillnotbepossiblehoweveriftheauthordoesnotincludethereferencelistwiththedocumenttobeproofread.Thenthemainconcernswillbeensuringthatthein-textreferencesappearincorrectnumericalorderonfirstmentionthattheirformatisconsistentthroughoutthepaperandthatanyinformationnamesdatesetc.usedmorethanoncewithaparticularnumberedreferenceareconsistent.Ifthelistisincludeditmustappearincorrectnumericalorderaswellbeginningwithreference1andcontinuingthroughtothefinalreferencecitedinthepaper.AlphabeticalorderdoesnotneedtobeobservedandtheresalsononeedtoensurethatauthornamesandpublicationdatesappearatthebeginningofeachreferenceauthornamesstilldoappearfirstinsuchasystembutdatesrarelyfollowthemastheyCHAPTER3 92doinanauthordatesystem.Eachreferenceinthelistmustconformtoanyinstructionsandexamplesprovidedintherelevantguidelinesorfollowtheauthorspredominantusageintermsoftheinformationpresentedandtheformatandorderinwhichitspresentedandconsistencyshouldbemaintainedforeachbibliographicalcomponentthroughoutthelist.Thefollowingexamplespresentthefullbibliographicalreferenceforasinglesourceachapterinaneditedbookaccordingtothreedifferentstylesofnumericalreferencingthefirsttwoareusedinmanyarticlesandthethirdisoutlinedintheguidelinesofawell-knownmedicaljournal.Vancouvernumerical1.HardmanP.Presentingthetextpictorialtraditioninfifteenth-centurymanuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InFinleyWKRosenblumJeditors.ChaucerillustratedFivehundredyearsoftheCanterburyTalesinpictures.NewCastleDEOakKnollPress2003.Pp.37-72.AmericanMedicalAssociationAMAnumerical1.HardmanP.Presentingthetextpictorialtraditioninfifteenth-centurymanuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InFinleyWKRosenblumJeds.ChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures.NewCastleDeOakKnollPress200337-72.BMCPublicHealthnumerical1.HardmanPPresentingthetextpictorialtraditioninfifteenth-centurymanuscriptsoftheCanterburyTales.InChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures.EditedbyFinleyWKRosenblumJ.NewCastleDEOakKnollPress200337-72.CHAPTER3 933.1.4FootnoteandEndnoteReferencesProvidingreferencesviafootnotesatthebottomofthepagesofapaperorendnotesinthefinalmatterisaverydifferentstyleofreferencingthantheauthordateornumericalsystems.Itisnowalmostexclusivelyrestrictedtothehumanitieswhereitscapacityforaccommodatingawidevarietyofsourcesisparticularlyappropriateandittendstobeusedinbooksmorethaninjournals.FootnotesorendnotesappearinthemaintextinnumericalorderandthenotenumbersgenerallytaketheformofsuperscriptArabicnumeralsalthoughoccasionallythemorecumbersomeRomannumeralsarestillused.Someguidelinesaskthatnotenumbersbeenclosedinsteadinsquarebracketsorparentheses1or1.Thenumbersareplacedwhereappropriateinthetexttoreflecttheauthorsuseofsourcesbutlikenumericalreferencestheyusuallyfollowfullstopsandcommasasthisnumberdoes1butprecedecolonsandsemicolonsasthisnumberdoes1howeversomejournalguidelineswillinsistthatallfootnotesappeareitherattheendofsentencesorattheendofparagraphsandinsuchcasesseveralreferenceswilloftenneedtobegatheredintoasinglenote.Althoughnumericalreferencesandnoteswouldnotbothbeusedforreferencinginasinglepaperifnotesareusedandallowedbyguidelinesforotherpurposesinapaperusingnumericalreferencesitisessentialthatthenumeralsusedfornotesareclearlydistinguishedfromthoseusedforreferencesonetypemightbesuperscriptandtheotherinparenthesesorifthereareveryfewnotesasystemofsymbolscouldbeusedfornoteindicators.Anyinstructionsorrequirementsfortheseelementsprovidedintherelevantguidelinesshouldbeconsideredwhiledeterminingthisdistinction.CHAPTER3 94Whenreferencesareprovidedinfootnotesorendnotesthenotesgenerallyincludecompletebibliographicalinformationwhenasourceisfirstcitedandashorterversionofthereferenceusuallytheauthorslastnameandashortenedtitleforallsubsequentcitationsofthesamesource.UsingtheChicagostyleofreferencingwithinnotesasanexamplethecitationforafirstandthereforefullreferencetoachapterwithinabookincludingapagenumberfordirectquotationwouldbeLindaOlsonRomancingtheBookManuscriptsforEuerichInglischeinOpeningUpMiddleEnglishManuscriptsLiteraryandVisualApproachesKathrynKerby-FultonMaidieHilmoandLindaOlsonIthacaNYCornellUniversityPress2012102.SubsequentfootnoteendnotereferencesforthesamesourceandpagenumberwouldbeOlsonRomancingtheBook102.Withthisstyleofreferencingalistofreferencesisntstrictlynecessarybecausevirtuallyallofthebibliographicalinformationrequiredtofindsourceshasalreadybeenprovidedinthenoteswiththesingleexceptionofthefullpagerangeforthechapter.ThismissingelementissometimesaddedattheendofthefullfirstreferencefollowedbytheparticularpageonwhichthequotationisfoundLindaOlsonRomancingtheBookManuscriptsforEuerichInglischeinOpeningUpMiddleEnglishManuscriptsLiteraryandVisualApproachesKathrynKerby-FultonMaidieHilmoandLindaOlsonIthacaNYCornellUniversityPress201295151at102.Howeverabibliographyisoftenincludedinapaperusingfootnoteorendnotereferencesinwhichcasethefullpagerangeofachapterorarticleappearsinthebibliographysotheresnoneedtoincludeitinthenote.CompleteChicagoreferencesinthebibliographydifferCHAPTER3 95slightlyfromthoseinthenotesinotherwaysaswellsothereferencetothesamechapterinthebibliographywouldtakethisformOlsonLinda.RomancingtheBookManuscriptsforEuerichInglische.InOpeningUpMiddleEnglishManuscriptsLiteraryandVisualApproachesKathrynKerby-FultonMaidieHilmoandLindaOlson95151.IthacaNYCornellUniversityPress2012.Whenanin-notestyleofreferencingisusedtheprimaryfunctionoffootnotesandendnotesistoprovidecitationsandbibliographicalinformationonsourcesbutadditionalmaterialofallkindscanalsobeincludedinthenotesmakingthemausefulsiteforcomparingandcontrastingtheoriesandevidenceandresultsandcreatingakindofsecondarydialoguewithinthediscussionofapaper.Howevermanypublishersparticularlyjournalsnowviewsuchnotesasclutteronthepageandoftenrelegatethemasendnotestothefinalmatterofanarticleorbookinordertoavoidwhatisseenasanunattractiveproblem.Ifajournalallowsnotestheguidelineswillusuallyindicatewhetherfootnotesorendnotesarepreferredandwhattheyshouldcontain.Manyjournalsthatuseauthordateornumericalreferencingstyleswillaskthateitherkindofnotesberestrictedtoadditionalinformationandnotbeusedforreferencing.Thisdoesnotmeanhoweverthatcitationscantbeusedinthenotes.Onthecontrarynotesshouldbetreatedlikeanyotherpartofthepaperandprovidedwiththesamekindofin-textreferencessoanoteinanauthordatesystemmightread1.ThemostinterestingaspectofJacobsonsresearchfrommyperspectiveisthathisresultsdidnotrevealthetrendofrapiddeteriorationnotedinpreviousstudies2010p.33.Inanumericalsystemthesamenotewouldread1.ThemostinterestingaspectofJacobsonsresearchfrommyperspectiveisthathisresultsdidnotrevealthetrendofrapiddeteriorationnotedinpreviousstudies.8p33CHAPTER3 96Whennotesareincludedinapaperusingeitheranauthordateornumericalsystemofreferencinghowevertheyhavetodomorethansimplyprovidereferencestheyhavetoaddinformationsuchasdetailsexplanatorynotesalternativeapproachesadditionalevidenceandtheliketothemaindiscussion.ThefontstyleusedinfootnotesandendnotesshouldbethesameasthefontusedinthemainpaperalthoughtheautomaticnotefunctioninaprogramsuchasWordwilloftenuseadifferentonesodowatchforthisandadjustthefontifnecessary.Thetextinnotescanhoweverbealittlesmallerthanthetextinthemaindocumenta10-pointor11-pointfontforinstanceifa12-pointfontisusedinthemaintextIveusedan11-pointoneinmyexamplenotesintheprecedingparagraph.Rememberhoweverthatthetextmustcomplywithanyfontsizerequirementsindicatedintherelevantguidelinesanditmustalsoremainclearandlegibleinrelationtothesizeofthemaintextwhichisaspecialconcernifcomplexanddetailedinformationsuchasequationsorpassagesoftextusingspecialcharactersareincludedinthenotesorifsuperscriptnumbersareusedfornumericalcitationswithinthenotes.Withtheexceptionofin-notereferencesproperwhichshouldobservetherequiredformatoftherelevantreferencingstylewhethertheyarefullbibliographicalreferencesorshortenedversionsandcansimplybelistedoneafteranotherseparatedbysemicolonsbothfootnotesandendnotesshouldbewritteninfullEnglishsentencesandcorrectlypunctuated.Althoughtheyaretreatedassuchbysomeauthorsfootnotesandendnotesarenotappropriateplacesforpoint-forminformationorEnglishthatisinformalorshorthand.AlmostallauthorswillusetheautomaticfootnoteandendnotefunctionsinWordtoconstructtheirnotesandmostpublishersCHAPTER3 97includingscholarlyjournalswillalloworevenwelcomepaperswithautomaticallyformattednotes.Thisisbecausethefootnoteandendnotefunctionstendtobeveryeffectiveatnumberingnotesconsecutivelyandsettingthemaccuratelyeitheratthebottomoftherelevantpagesforfootnotesorattheendofthepaperforendnotes.Thisisparticularlyvaluableforfootnoteswhichcanpresentsignificantchallengeswhentheyneedtobelaidoutonthepagemanually.UnfortunatelyhoweverWordsautomaticfootnotesalsohaveanastyhabitofsuddenlydisappearinginwholeormoreofteninpartasacomplexdocumentiseditedparticularlywithTrackChangesonandtheprogramfacesthechallengeofrearrangingnotesandtextonarapidlychangingpage.Thenotenumbersinthetextarenotalteredbutthenotesthemselvesatthebottomofpagesarecutshortusuallyatthepointwhereafootnotebreakstobecontinuedonthefollowingpagesothenotesimplystopsbeforeitisfinished.Inmostcasesthenotesarentactuallygoneandgenerallyalittlefiddlingcanbringthembackaddinganewfootnotenumbertothemaintextafewwordsbeforethenumberofalostorpartiallylostfootnoteusuallynudgestheprogramintorememberingthelostfootnotewhichwillthenreappear.AtthispointtheunnecessarynoteyouaddedcanbedeletedoryoucansimplyusetheUndobuttonandtheretrievednotewillremain.InsomedocumentshoweverthisproceduremayneedtoberepeatedwheneverthefileisopenedormajorchangesaremadeandtherehavebeensituationsinwhichIvehadtoreplacefootnotesentirelycopyingfromtheauthorsoriginaldocument.MakingchangestofootnoteswithWordstrackingfunctionturnedofftendstocreatefewerproblemsbutifyoumustresorttothisbesuretoinformtheauthorofwhatyouvedone.Allinallfootnotesrequireanespeciallycarefulvisualcheckbeforeyourworkonanarticleisfinalised.CHAPTER3 98ManyauthorswillalsouseprogramssuchasEndNotetoformatandenterreferencesautomaticallybutsincesomejournalguidelinesindicatethatautomaticreferencesofthiskindshouldnotbeusedchecktheguidelinescarefullyifanyhavebeenprovidedandalerttheauthorifyoususpectthatunwantedautomaticreferencinghasbeenused.Specialcareshouldbetakenwhenproofreadingfullbibliographicalreferencescreatedviaautomaticreferencingbecausewhileastyleveryclosetowhatisrequiredwillusuallybeachievedoftenoneparticulardetailwillconsistentlybeformattedincorrectlyorunusualorcomplicatedreferenceswillbeformattedininappropriateways.Automaticreferencingcancreateothereditingchallengesaswellin-textcitationscreatedinthiswaycansometimesprovedifficulttochangeandthereforecorrectandreferencelistsconstructedthroughautomaticreferencingoccasionallyshiftpositioninapaperifthedocumentiscopiedintoacleanversionafterproofreadingseeSection7.2onmakingacleanversionofadocumentwhichmeansthatanextracheckforthisandperhapssomerepositioningwillbenecessary.Theblockformatofreferencelistsmadeviaautomaticreferencingalsopreventstheproofreaderfrommakingmarginalcommentsonindividualfeaturesofthereferencesbecausewhenanypartofthelistnomatterhowsmallisselectedforacommenttheentirelistishighlightedandthecommentisattachedtothewholelistnottheindividualpartwhichrequiresasomewhatdifferentstrategyforcomments.PRSTipWhencommentingonreferencelistscreatedautomaticallyyouwillusuallynotbeabletoselectasingleaspectofthelistoritsreferencesandcommentonitspecifically.InsteadanymarginalcommentsaboutgeneralorspecificchangesthatareattachedCHAPTER3 99toanypartofthelistwillbeconnectedtothelistasawholeandallyourexplanationsandquerieswillneedtobeincludedinasinglecomment.Thismakesforalessprecisemeansofcommunicatingwiththeauthorthanindividualcommentsattachedtoparticularpartsofthelistwouldbesoyourcommentswillneedtobecorrespondinglymoredetailedandprecise.InsteadofselectingthedateforinstanceinaparticularreferenceandnotinginashortcommentthatThisdoesntmatchthedateIvefoundonlineforthissourceandshouldbecheckedyoullneedtoexplainthesituationatgreaterlengthwithacommentsomethinglikethisForTaylor2011pleasenotethatthedateyouhaveherediffersfromthedateIfoundonlineforthisbooksopleasecheckyoursourcetobesurethatthedateyouhaveiscorrectfortheversionyouveused.Suchmarginalcommentarycanquicklybecomeextremelyunwieldyandresultinaformatthatislessthanuser-friendlyfortheauthorsoitcanbehelpfultoplacesuchlengthycommentsinaseparatecoveringletterideallyaWorddocument.Youcanthenincludeinthemarginbesidethereferencelistnomorethanashortcommentinformingtheauthorthatfurthercommentsonthelistcanbefoundinthecoveringletter.Anylengthyorgeneralcommentsonapaperexplanationsqueriespossiblesolutionsetc.canbeofferedinsuchaletterwhichcanworkwondersinremovingclutterfromthemarginsofaneditedpaperandthelettercanbecreatedwhenyoustartajobasIsuggestinSection1.2abovesothatyoucancollectcommentsinitasyouworkandsimplytidythefileupformalisingyourlanguageforinstanceandclarifyingdetailedexplanationsofproblemsattheendofthejobbeforesendingitandtheeditedpaperalongtotheauthor.CHAPTER3 1003.2RecognisingandPolishingtheAuthorsOwnSystemofReferencesIfnostyleguideorguidelinesorexampleshavebeenprovidedforthereferencesinanacademicorscientificarticleyoureproofreadingaslightlydifferentmethodologywillneedtobeadopted.TheauthormighthaveusedanyoneofthereferencingstylesIvementionedorshowninSections3.1.23.1.4aboveorastylethatcombinesaspectsofmorethanoneofthesestyles.Althoughdeterminingwhichstyleisusedwillhelpagreatdealwhenitcomestoaddingnecessaryinformationtoreferencesandmakingdecisionsregardingdetailsthatareinconsistentchangingelementsofanauthorsreferencesthatdifferfromthestyleyoubelievetobetheonefollowedwhenthoseelementshavebeenconsistentlyappliedbytheauthorisnotaproductiveapproach.Foronetheauthormayverydeliberatelyhaveestablishedthosedifferencesforreasonsyouhaventdetectedthatmaybeinfactwhyyouvereceivednostyleguidetofollowwhileproofreading.SecondlyyoumaybewrongtherearemanymanystylesofreferencingandtheyvaryconsiderablyfromdisciplinetodisciplineparticularlywhenitcomestosmalldetailssotheauthormaybefollowingasystemyoudontrecogniseseeLipson2011forinformationonawiderangeofcitationstyles.Finallytheprocessofcreatinginternalconsistencyinsuchcasesoftenbenefitsfromapplyingtheifitaintbrokendontfixitprinciplebecauseifyouchoosetoalteraconsistentormostlyconsistentreferencingsystemyouruntheriskofnotonlychangingwhattheauthordoesntwantchangedbutalsointroducingerrorsandinconsistencies.Soiftheauthorssystemprovidesthenecessaryinformationforclearandaccuratecitationsandwhenalistisincludedfullandaccuratebibliographicalreferencesanddoessowithmoreconsistencythaninconsistencyitshouldinalmostallcasesberetained.CHAPTER3 101Thisisnttosaythattheauthorsreferencingsystemwontneedsomeadjustmentsevenwellthoughtoutandcarefullyappliedtechniquesusuallyrequirealittlepolishingtoachieveinternalconsistency.Someissueswillberelativelystraightforwardofcourseprovidedcommonsenseisapplied.Ifforinstancetheauthorusesanampersandinsteadofthewordandbetweenauthornamesinoneortwoparentheticalin-textcitationsalthoughheorsheusuallyusesandinthispositiontheampersandsshouldbechangedtoandinordertomaketheauthorspredominantusagemoreconsistent.Thesameprincipleappliesiftheauthorusuallyincludesafullstopafterthedateinthefullbibliographicalreferencesinthereferencelistbutomitsthestopinafewcasesthemissingstopsshouldbeprovidedforconsistency.Howeverneithertheauthorspredominantandforin-textreferencesinthefirstcasenortheauthorspredominantfullstopafterdatesinthesecondshouldbechangedbecausetheproofreaderthinksthechangemoreappropriateorevenbecausetheproofreaderthinksittheusualchoiceforthereferencingsystemtheauthorappearstobeusing.Perhapsiftheauthortendstouseanampersandinsteadofandbetweenauthornamesinthereferencelistdespiteusingandintheparentheticalreferencestheissueisworthraisinginacommentbutalthoughitmayseembettertousethesameformatinbothplacessomestylesactuallycallforthisinconsistencybetweentextandlistaslongastheampersandisusedconsistentlyinoneplaceandtheandintheother.Creatinginternalconsistencyinsituationswhereeitheroranyofthechoiceswouldbeequallyacceptableshouldnotprioritiseanimaginedreferencingstyleovertheauthorsusualpracticesunlessthosepracticesareincorrectorincompleteandwhenindoubtmakingasfewchangesaspossibleisasoundpolicy.ChangeswillbenecessaryhoweverwhetheryoumakethemyourselfandexplainwhatyouvedoneorsimplyalerttheauthortoCHAPTER3 102theneedtomakethemwhenanyofthebasiccomponentsrequiredforcompleteandaccuratereferenceshavenotbeenprovided.Forexampleperhapstheauthorhasnotprovidedanysortofpunctuationbetweenthenameofthepublisherandtheplaceofpublicationinallthereferencestobooksincludedinthereferencelist.Werethepunctuationprovidedinoneortwoinstancesyoucouldusethatpunctuationasamodelprovidedthatitseffectivebutwithoutanyprecedentsofthissortitsbestsimplytoaddwhateverpunctuationwouldbemosteffectiveinthatpositiongiventheusualpunctuationassociatedwithsuchelementsandthepunctuationusednearbyintheauthorssystemacoloncommaorsemicolonwouldworkwell.Similarlythoughwithalittlemorecomplexityifthepagenumberrangeismissingfromoneortwoofthearticlereferencesinthereferencelistandyoucanfindtheinformationonlineyoumaywanttoadditlettingtheauthorknowinacommentthatitwouldbegoodtocheckthosesourcestobesurethepagenumbersyouprovidedarecorrect.IfthepagerangesaremissingfromallarticlereferencesinthereferencelisthoweveritsprobablybestunlessyoureinyourgoodSamaritanmoodandcanfindmostofthemissingpagerangeseasilytoalerttheauthortotheproblemandleaveittohimorhertoprovidethemissinginformation.Ifpagenumbersaremissingfromsomeofthein-textcitationsfordirectquotationsontheotherhandyoualmostcertainlywontbeabletoaddthemsotheauthorshouldbeinformedoftheneedtocheckthesourcesandaddthepagenumbersunlessofcoursetheyreweb-basedsourcesthatdonthavepagenumbers.IdeallythiswouldbedoneviaacommentattachedtoeachinstanceofomissionbutonlythefirstcommentwillneedtoexplainthesituationindetailwhilesubsequentcommentsonthesameissuecouldbeshortsuchasPagenumberneededacommentonthefirstinstanceofamissingpagenumberthatinformstheauthorofthefactthattheomissionoccursinCHAPTER3 103severalplacessothatallquotationsshouldbecheckedandpagenumbersaddedifnecessarywouldalsosuffice.Eachpapereachauthorandeachdisciplineapproachesthecitationofsourcesinwaysthatareatleastsomewhatuniqueandthesedifferencesplayalargerrolewhenyourefollowingthepredominantusageofanauthorratherthanspecificguidelineswhileproofreadingandeditinganarticle.Forthosewhomaketheirlivingthroughsomewhatobsessivepracticesacertainamountofobsessionbeingasnecessarytogoodproofreadersasitistogoodscholarsitcanbedifficulttoacceptthatlettinggoisoftennecessarytoproofreadingeffectivelywithoutguidelineslettinggoofsomethingsthatiswhileholdingontoothers.Itdoesntreallymatterforinstancethattheauthorplaceshisorherin-textnumericalreferencesinsidefullstopsandcommaswhenyouknowthattheVancouversystemheorsheisusingprefersthemoutsidethesebitsofpunctuationthoughyoucancertainlyalerttheauthortothedifferenceifyoulikejustlikeitdoesntreallymatteriftheauthorisusingetalHarvard-stylewithoutafinalfullstopinparentheticalauthordatereferenceswhenasourcehasonlythreeauthorsalthoughhisorherreferencesotherwiseconformtoChicagostylethoughagainyoucancertainlyalerttheauthorincaseheorsheisattemptingtouseHarvardorChicagoreferencingaccuratelyandperhapsnoteaswellthatetal.ismorecorrectwithafullstop.ThefirstauthorhasnotindicatedthatheorsheisfollowingVancouverstyleandthesecondhassaidnothingaboutusingeitherHarvardorChicagostylesowhatdoesmatterinthefirstsituationisthatallthein-textnumericalreferencesappearinthesamepositioninrelationtofullstopsandcommasinallrelevantcasesandinthesecondsituationthatetalisusedwheneverasourcewiththreeormoreauthorsiscitedandthatitsformatisconsistentinallinstances.CHAPTER3 104Proofreadingandadjustingacademicandscientificreferenceseffectivelywithoutguidelinestofollowisoftenamatterofdecidingexactlywhatelementsaredeservingofyourperfectionisttendenciesandhowtodirectthosetendencieswiselytoaspectsoftheauthorsreferencesthatdoneedtobecompletedcorrectedorpolished.Commonsenseexperienceandrespectfortheauthorwillservewhereintricateknowledgeofdifferentreferencingsystemswillnotandacombinationofsuchqualitieswithextensivereferencingknowledgewillserveyouandyourscholarlyclientbest.Ofcoursetherearetimeswhenanauthorsownreferencingsystemissoinconsistentinalmosteverywaythatitcannotbecalledasystematallandyourapproachtoeditingwillthereforeneedtobemoreinvasiveandwillnodoubtinvolveagooddealofcommentaryaswell.Youllrarelybeabletoresolvealltheproblemsyoudetectinsuchcasesbutclearanddetailedexplanationsoftheissuesofferedinmarginalcommentsoracoveringletterandeffectiveexamplesofchangesandadditionsininstanceswhereyouareabletoprovidemissinginformationandotherwiseresolveproblemswillgoalongwaytowardsenablingtheauthortoresolveotherproblemseffectivelyandefficientlythroughthethoroughrevisionofreferencesthatisobviouslyrequired.Youwillhaveenabledyourselfaswellspecificallytoproofreadtherestofthepapermoreeffectivelyandefficientlybybecomingfamiliarwiththeauthorsmethodsandtendencieswhethergoodbadoruglyaswellaswithalittleofthescholarshipandterminologyassociatedwithhisorherareaofstudy.Youareasitwerebothforewarnedandforearmed.CHAPTER3 105Chapter4StylisticandEditorialDetailsChoicesandNecessitiesIfyourefollowingtheapproachtoproofreadingscholarlyarticlessuggestedinthisHandbookbythetimeyouturntothemaintextofthepaperyoureproofreadingyoullhavemostissuesaboutthereferencesresolved.ThisisextremelyhelpfulparticularlywhenyourenewtoeditingscholarlypapersbecausethereareagreatmanymattersaboutlanguageandpresentationbothmajorandminortoconsiderwhileproofreadingformalEnglishproseintendedforpublicationinanacademicorscientificjournal.Somejournalguidelinesforauthorswillprovidespecificadviceaboutlanguageuseandpresentationbutinmostinstancestheadviceofferedwillbeverylimitedinscopeanddetailsotheauthorsusagewillneedtobefollowedasmuchaspossibleandifnecessarybroughtintolinewithsoundscholarlypractice.NoguidetoproofreadingoreditingcanhopetodealwithalltheproblemsthatmightanddoariseinarticlesinawidevarietyofdisciplinesbutinthisandthefollowingchapterIveprovidedpracticalinformationandadviceoncertainaspectsofacademicandscientificwritingthattendtobeespeciallyfraughtwithdifficultiesandinconsistenciesoftenparticularlyforauthorswhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglishbutcertainlynotexclusively.4.1BritishversusAmericanSpellingVariantspellingsofthesamewordarerelativelycommonintheEnglishlanguageandinsomecasesbannisterversusbanisterCHAPTER4 106andbeausversusbeauxaregoodexampleseitherspellingisacceptableaslongasthesamespellingisusedinallrelevantinstanceswithinasinglepaper.Ifaparticulardictionaryispreferredbytheguidelinesorstyleguideprovidedbytheauthoritshouldbecheckedtodeterminethedominantversionwhenchoosingbetweenvariantsofsuchwordsifnodictionaryisindicatedtheauthorspredominantusageshouldbefollowedanditsconsistencyimprovedifnecessary.NotallspellingvariationscanbedecideduponinthiswayhoweverandmanyaretheresultoftherebeingtwodifferentformsofEnglishBritishandAmerican.SpecifyingwhetherBritishorAmericanspellingshouldbeusedinarticlesconsideredforpublicationisamongthemostcommondetailsaboutlanguageuseprovidedintheguidelinesofEnglishlanguagejournalsandevenjournalsthatwillalloweitherformofEnglishwillrarelytolerateamixofBritishandAmericanspellingsinthesamepaper.ManyscholarlyauthorswhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglishmaynotevenbeawareofthisdistinctionhoweverandmanyauthorswhosefirstlanguageisEnglishmaynotbeawareoftheextentofthevariationsorofcertaincategoriesofvariants.InadditionsomedictionariesdonotindicateinallcaseswhetherthespellingvariantsprovidedaredeterminedbythedifferencesbetweenBritishandAmericanEnglish.AjumbleofBritishandAmericanspellingsisthereforenotuncommonintheacademicandscientificarticlessenttoproofreadersandthelistofthemaindifferenceswithexamplesofeachthatfollowsbasedprimarilyonButcheretal.2006andRitter2005willnodoubtprovehelpful.CHAPTER4 107CHAPTER4AmericanEnglishorcolorhonorfavorlabortumorneighborharborbehaviorercentertheaterscepterocherliterfibersombersabermeterparameterperimetersoberlettertenderizeorganizespiritualizesystemizerecognizebutpromiserevisecompriseconciseadvertiseguisezanalyzeparalyzecatalyzecozyeencyclopediaestheticsanemiamedievalarcheologybutalsoarchaeologyemaneuverfetalamebaomoldsmoldermoltogcataloganalogdialogordialoguebutmonologueepiloguedgacknowledgmentabridgmentjudgmentBritishEnglishourcolourhonourfavourlabourtumourneighbourharbourbehaviourrecentretheatresceptreochrelitrefibresombresabremetrebutparameterperimetersoberlettertenderiseorganisespiritualisesystemiserecogniseorganizespiritualizesystemizerecognizealsoacceptablepromiserevisecompriseconciseadvertiseguisesanalyseparalysecatalysecosyaeencyclopaediaaestheticsanaemiamediaevalormedievalarchaeologyoemanoeuvrefoetalamoebaoumouldsmouldermoultoguecatalogueanaloguedialoguemonologueepiloguedgeacknowledgementabridgementjudgementbutjudgmentinlegalcontexts 108CHAPTER4AmericanEnglishceandsepracticenounandverblicensenounandverbdefensepretenseablesalablesizableamicablenavigablebutknowledgeablebridgeablegramgramprogramdiagramanagramtelegramfsulfursulfidesulfateckcheckcheckercheckingcheckeredskskepticmolluskllappallfulfilldistillenrollinstallmentskillfulwillfulinstallsingleconsonantsfocusedtravelergroveledmodelingtunnelerbutcontrollableenrollingowplowonewordpercentBritishEnglishceandsepracticenounpractiseverblicencenounlicenseverbdefencepretenceeablesaleablesizeableknowledgeablebridgeablebutamicablenavigablegrammegrammeprogrammebutcomputerprogramdiagramanagramtelegramphsulphursulphidesulphatequechequechequerchequingchequeredscscepticmollusclappalfulfildistilenrolinstalmentskilfulwilfulbutinstalldoubleconsonantsfocussedtravellergrovelledmodellingtunnellercontrollableenrollingoughploughtwowordspercent 109ThislistlikeothersofitskindinbooksthatattempttoclarifythedifferencesbetweenBritishandAmericanEnglishisbynomeansexhaustiveorconclusivebecauseastheexceptionstotherulesnotedinitsuggesttherecanbeconsiderableoverlapinusagewitheachformofEnglishusingthespellingsmorecommontotheotherattimes.YetifalistofthekindpresentedhereisusedinconjunctionwithagoodBritishorAmericandictionarythatnotesthevariantscommonintheotherformofEnglishmostuncertaintiescanberesolved.IfhoweveryoufindthatcertainwordsproveespeciallyproblematicsimplybecauseitsimpossibletodecideevenafterconsultingdictionariesandwhateveradditionalonlinehelpmightbeavailablewhichspellingisBritishandwhichisAmericantheresagoodchancethatthespellingvariantsarentspecificallylinkedtoeitherformofEnglishandsocanbeusedinboth.Insuchcasesthebestpolicyistofollowtheauthorspredominantusageincreasinghisorherconsistencywhereverpossibleandperhapsexplainingthedilemmaifyoufeelitmightbehelpfulfortheauthor.WhetheryourechangingthespellingofwordsthathavedistinctlyBritishandAmericanversionstomeetguidelinerequirementsortomaketheauthorsusageuniformestablishingimprovingandmaintainingconsistencyshouldbethepriorityasitiswithsomanyotheraspectsofproofreadingscholarlyarticles.TheauthorshouldbeinformedofwhythespellingchangeshavebeenmadeseemyexampleinSection1.3.2aboveespeciallyiftherearemanyofthemasinglecommentonthefirstinstancenotingthatseveralchangeswereneededtoconformtotherequirementsofBritishorAmericanEnglishwoulddonicely.FinallybesuretodoanextracheckofanychangesyouvemadebecauseWordtendstochangesuchspellingvariantsbacktotheonesitthinksmostappropriateforthelanguagesettingtheauthorhasused.CHAPTER4 110PRSTipBeyondthespellingvariantslistedabovethereareanumberofusagesthatvarybetweenBritishandAmericanEnglish.Towardversustowardsisagoodexample.TowardissometimesnotedasAmericanwhiletowardsisreferredtoasBritishbutthedistinctionisoftenunobservedandthereisnouniversalruleregardingusagesavethattheadjectivalformasopposedtothemorecommonprepositionalformgenerallydoesnotusethefinals.ForwardforwardsandbackwardbackwardspresentsimilarchallengeswiththesformssometimesidentifiedasBritishandthosewithoutthesasAmericanandthesonlyusedintheadverbialformsofthewords.Insuchcasesobservingthenecessitiesofcorrectgrammarandachievingconsistentusagethroughoutanarticleisusuallythemostimportantconcernunlesstherelevantguidelinesactuallyindicateapreferenceforoneformoveranother.ThesameprinciplesaccuracyandconsistencyshoulddeterminetheuseofotherwordsandphrasesthatdifferbetweenBritishandAmericanEnglishsuchasdifferentfromversusdifferentthangotversusgottenhireversusrentpetrolversusgasolinemobileversuscellphonefirst-yearstudentversusfreshmanandaeroplaneversusairplanewiththeBritishformfirstineachcase.Forsomeofthesetermsanadditionalconcerniswhetherornottheintendedaudiencewillunderstandthem.Mostacademicandscientificarticlesarewritteninthetwenty-firstcenturywithatleastthepossibilityofinternationalreadersinmindsoitcanbeusefultoalerttheauthortothepotentialforconfusionandsuggesteitheralesslocalwordaircraftforinstanceinsteadofaeroplaneorairplaneorabriefexplanationonfirstusethatpetrolinBritainforexampleisthefuelknowasgasorgasolineintheUnitedStates.CHAPTER4 1114.2AttendingtoCapitalisationandSpecialFontsItseemsalmostunbelievablethatsomethingassimpleastheuseofcapitallettersandspecialfontscouldsoeasilybecomecomplexandproblematicwhentheprimarypurposeofboththesefeaturesinacademicandscientificarticlestendstobeclarification.Yetthefactisthatcapitalisationandspecialfontscanpotentiallycausealmostasmuchconfusionastheyattempttoresolveespeciallyiftheyareusedbothextensivelyandinconsistently.Authorstendtohavetheirownmethodsandpatternswhenusingthesefeaturesandwhenreasonablethesemethodsandpatternsshouldbeobservedasmuchaspossibleespeciallybecausedifferentdisciplinesandfieldstendtousecapitalisationandspecialfontsinparticularways.Yettheoveruseorunnecessaryuseofcapitalsandspecialfontscancreateanimpressionofclutterbecomedistractingforthereaderanddefeatthepurposeoftheiruseevenwhentheyareusedconsistentlywhentheyareusedinconsistentlychaoscanbethemostpronouncedresult.Sogenerallyspeakingkeepingtheuseofcapitalisationandspecialfontstoaminimumisgoodpracticeandwhenthesefeaturesarenecessaryastheyvirtuallyalwaysaretosomeextentinscholarlypaperstheyshouldbeusedaccordingtoconventionalrulesandwithenoughconsistencytoallowthemtoemphasiseanddistinguishpreciselywhattheyshould.Ensuringthatthisisthecaseisthereforetheproofreadersprimaryjobwhilecheckingandeditingtheauthorsuseofcapitalisationandspecialfonts.4.2.1CapitalsforNamesTitlesandOtherElementsTheuseofacapitalletterasaformofpunctuationonthefirstwordofasentencetoindicatethebeginningofthesentencerarelyCHAPTER4 112presentsproblemsforauthorsthoughthereareinstancesthatareslightlycomplicated.AninitialcapitalissometimesusedafteracolonforinstancebutstrictlyspeakingacolondoesnotendasentenceorindicateanewonesoinBritishEnglishalowercaselettergenerallyfollowsacolonbutinAmericanEnglishacapitalcanbeusedinthispositionifthecolonintroduceswhatcanbereadasacompletesentence.WhenacolonintroducesalistorquotationorsimilarmaterialorappearsbetweenthemaintitleandsubtitleofatitleorheadingacapitaloftenfollowsandisacceptableinbothkindsofEnglish.Whencapitalsareusedtodistinguishandemphasisepropernounsornameshoweverandtomarkheadingsandtitlesasawholemattersarerarelysostraightforward.Therearenoabsoluterulesforallaspectsofcapitalisationinsuchsituationsandwhetherornotanygivenwordshouldbecapitalisedcandependonitsroleinasentencethefieldordisciplineofstudyandthestyleguideorguidelinesused.Guidelinesrarelyprovidedetailedinformationoncapitalisationsounlesstheyaretrulyunhelpfulandutterlyinconsistenttheauthorsownpatternsandpreferencesshouldbeusedasthebasisforestablishingaclearconsistentandmeaningfulsystem.Ifjournalguidelineshaveanythingtosayoranyexamplestoofferregardingcapitalisationtheywillusuallyfocusontwocategoriesoftitlesthetitlesandheadingsofarticlessubmittedtothejournalandthetitlesofanybooksjournalsessayschapterswebsitespoemsplaysandsoonthatarementionedinsucharticles.Thefirstcategorywilloftenbedealtwithintheinformationonthestructureofpaperswhilethesecondwillgenerallybetreatedinconjunctionwiththereferencingstylerequired.InsomecasesonesystemofcapitalisationwillapplytobothcategoriesandalltitlesbutsuchuniformtreatmentisnotthecaseasoftenasmightbeexpectedsospecialcareshouldalwaysbetakentonoticeanydifferentCHAPTER4 113requirementsfordifferenttypesandlocationsoftitlesandheadings.CapitalsmayberequiredforinstanceonlyfortheinitiallettersofthepapertitleandanypropernounsinthetitleAcasestudyofCharlotteSmithpoetandnovelistortheymaybeneededonallmainwordsinatitleACaseStudyofCharlotteSmithPoetandNovelist.AcapitalmayhavetoappearatthebeginningofasubtitlefollowingacolonendashoremdashAcasestudyofCharlotteSmithPoetandnovelistorthesubtitlemaynotusecapitalsatallalthoughthefirstpartofthetitleusesthemonallmainwordsACaseStudyofCharlotteSmithpoetandnovelist.Occasionallyblockcapitalswithnolowercaselettersatallareusedforthetitleofanarticle.Thepatternofcapitalisationusedforthetitleofthepapermayalsoapplytotheheadingsusedtostructureanddividethepaper.Inthatcasethesamepatternofcapitalisationmightbeusedonalllevelsofheadingsbutusingdifferentpatternsofcapitalisationfordifferentlevelsofheadingisalsoaneffectivewayofdistinguishingheadinglevelsforexamplefirst-levelheadingsmightuseblockcapitalssecond-levelheadingsinitialcapitalsonallmainwordsandthird-levelheadingscapitalsonlyonthefirstletterandpropernouns.Ifsuchasystemistoworkwellitsessentialthatallheadingsofanyonelevelusetheexactsamepatternofcapitalisationandeachlevelspatternisdistinctfromthatofothers.Thepatternofcapitalisationusedforthetitleofthepapermayalsoapplytothetitlesofanysourcescitedinthepaperoradifferentpatternmayberequiredforthosesources.Thecapitalisationofbooktitlescanvaryfromthatofjournaltitlesandbothgenerallyvaryfromthatofarticleorchaptertitleswithinthesamepaperfullcapitalisationismorecommononjournalandbooktitlesforinstancethanonarticleandchaptertitleswhichoftenuseaninitialcapitalonlyonthefirstwordandpropernouns.ThepatternshouldalwaysbeconsistentforeachtypeoftitlesoifsomebooktitlesuseCHAPTER4 114fullcapitalisationtheyallshouldandifsomearticletitlesusepartialcapitalisationtheyallshould.Thedifferentpatternsofcapitalisationactuallyusedintitlesastheyappearinthesourcesthemselvesshouldnotbeusedasareasonforvaryingthepatternsofcapitalisationintitlesrecordedinascholarlypaperbecausewhilethismaybeasignofscrupulousattentiontotheoriginalsitisntnecessarywillconnectanddistinguishtitlesinappropriatelyandwillsimplycomeacrossasinconsistenttoreaders.Itwillinshortunderminepartofthereasonforusingdistinctandconsistentpatternsofcapitalisationinthefirstplace.AnexceptionispresentedbytitlesinforeignlanguageswhiletheycanobservethecapitalisationpatternsusedforEnglishtitlesinapaperdifferentrulesoftenapplyonforeignlanguagesseeButcheretal.2006pp.133137246247theChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter10Ritter2005Chapter12.Whateverpatternsofcapitalisationareusedforthetitlesofsourcestheproofreadershouldensurethattheyeffectivelymarktitlesastitlesareconsistentwithineachcategorybooksarticlesetc.andwhennecessaryareconsistentlydistinctbetweenthem.ItwouldseemsimpleenoughtodeterminewhetherinitialcapitalsareappropriatelyusedonpropernounsinascholarlypaperandthisisindeedthecasewhenitcomestopersonalnamesJohnSmithandJaneJonesshouldcertainlybearinitialcapitals.Howeversincecapitalsareoftenusedonpropernounstodistinguishthespecificuseofwordsfrommoregeneralusesofthesamewordsitisimperativethatcapitalsareusedonlywhenthemorespecificsensesofthosewordsareintendedunlessofcourseawordhappenstofallatthebeginningofasentenceandthiscanprovesomewhatcomplicatedattimes.PersonaltitlesandranksshouldbecapitalisediftheyaccompanyanameforexampleandespeciallywhentheyappearbeforethenamesothekinginKingCHAPTER4 115HenryshouldbearacapitalbutnotthekinginthekingofEnglandandthesameprincipleappliesinthefollowingcasesPrimeMinisterStephenHarperbuttheprimeministerProfessorJohnsonbutaprofessorofmathematicsEarlJohnofHuntingdonbuttheearlofHuntingtonandPopeJohnPaulbutthepope.WhenreferringtoMuhammadtheProphetbearsacapitalbutnotwhenusedmoregenerallye.g.abiblicalprophetandnoticethatthearticletheoraisnotcapitalisedineithercase.WhenarankortitleisusedaloneasanameitshouldgenerallybearaninitialcapitalHiFatherandRightawayGeneralandsoshouldareferencetoanhonourordegreeorawardNobelPrizeforPhysicsandBachelorofArtsthoughfordegreesabbreviationsconsistingofallcapitalsBAoracombinationofcapitalsandlowercaselettersPhDareoftenusedseeSection5.2.2below.ReligiousnamesandterminologyareoftencapitalisedbutnotalwaysandiftheauthorwhoseworkyoureproofreadinghasusedalllowercaselettersforreligioustermsthatareusuallycapitalisedinEnglishitsprobablybestnottochangethisasitmaybeaverydeliberategesturesosimplyalertinghimorhertothediscrepancywithEnglishconventionwillsuffice.ConventionallyspeakinghoweverallreferencestothemonotheisticdeityshouldappearwithaninitialcapitalGodAllahtheTrinityandtheLord.Althoughpronounsusedforthedeitycanbecapitalisedandincomplextheologicaldiscussionsthisdistinctioncanbehelpfulthispracticeisnotnecessaryandinmostcasesthetextismuchtidierwithoutit.ForthegodsandgoddessesofpolytheisticreligionsonlypropernamesshouldbecapitalisedthegodofwarandIsisprotectorofthedead.CapitalisationofsacredorreligiousritesisnotuniformsocomplineisfinebutsoisMatinsandthesameisthecasewithamassandtheMassconsistencyinusagewithinapaperisthegoalinsuchinstances.CatholicProtestantMuslimandthelikeCHAPTER4 116arenormallycapitalisedandsoarechurchandcathedralwhentheyrefertoaspecificchurchorchurchbuildingtheCatholicChurchandWorcesterCathedralbutnotontheirownthechurchandthecathedralexceptinspecifichistoricalcontextstheChurchmeaningtheCatholicChurchintheMiddleAgesforinstance.SimilarlytheBibleandtheKoranusecapitalsbutbiblicaldoesnot.PoliticaltermssuchasDemocratandRepublicanorLeftandRighthaveratherspecificmeaningswhencapitalisedwhileCommonsHouseandsimilarwordsrequirecapitalisationtoavoidambiguitybutthereisnoneedtocapitaliseparliamentbecausethereisverylittlepotentialforconfusion.ThenamesofotherinstitutionsandorganisationsshouldalsobearinitialcapitalstheUnitedNationstheNationalGalleryandGeneralMotorsasshouldtrademarkorproprietarynamessuchasCamaroHooverandXeroxwithwhichspecialcareshouldbetakenasgenerictermsareoftenmoreappropriatemusclecarforinstancevacuumcleanerandphotocopier.IfatradenameisusedasaverbitshouldnotbecapitalisedIxeroxedthedocuments.FinallythenamesofschoolsandmovementsshoulduseinitialcapitalstheOxfordSchoolImpressionismandRomanticismwithRomanticconveyingameaningverydifferentfromthatofromantic.GeographicallocationsifspecificshouldusecapitalsasshouldanygenerictermsthatareactuallypartofthenameCanadaNewYorkCitybutthecityofVictoriaandLakeMichiganandLakeSuperiorbutthelakesMichiganandSuperior.ThecapitalisationofcompassdirectionsvariesbuttheseelementsusuallyonlybearcapitalsiftheyindicatearecognisedentitywhetherculturalorpoliticalNorthernIrelandandtheMiddleEastbutusuallynorthernEuropeandthesouthofScotland.ForpostalCHAPTER4 117codesincludingletterscapitalsareusedV6K2S9.ThenamesforastronomicalentitiesarealittledifferentwiththeMilkyWayusingcapitalsbutnotsunandmoonexceptinspecificallyastronomicalcontextstodistinguishtheSunandMoonoftheearthssolarsystemfromothersunsandmoons.ThenamesofdaysmonthsfestivalsholidaysandhistoricalandgeologicalperiodsaregenerallycapitalisedWednesdayApriltheChineseNewYearThanksgivingRamadantheRenaissancetheIronAgeandtheMiddleAgesbutnotalwayse.g.themediaevalperiod.ForerassuchasADandBCcapitalsareusedastheyareforsimilarabbreviationsseeSection5.2.2belowbutthenamesofmodernperiodssuchastheageofsteamorthespaceageoftendonotusecapitalsandthesameisthecasewiththenamesofseasonssummerandautumnunlesstheyarepersonifiede.g.thewestwindisthebreathofSpring.WhenpersonifiedmanyotherwordsFreedomisagoodexamplethatwouldnormallyappearentirelyinlowercaselettersarealsogiveninitialcapitals.Thenamesofmajorhistoricaleventswarscatastrophesexhibitionstreatiescouncilsetc.shoulduseinitialcapitalstheGreatFaminetheSecondWorldWartheGunpowderPlottheLateranCounciltheReformationandtheCrucifixionwiththecapitalsdistinguishingthelasttwoasinstructiveexamplesfromthecommonandmoregenerictermsreformationandcrucifixion.ThenamesofpeopleandlanguagesandtheadjectivesderivedfromthemaresimilarlycapitalisedinEnglishCanadianNewYorkerAboriginalandSpanishbutwithconsiderablyinconsistencyAmericanisebutangliciseandBrusselssproutsbutitalicfontwiththecapitalinsuchcasessometimesindicatingacloserrelationshipwiththeoriginatingnationality.ThesameisthecasewithwordsderivedfrompersonalnamessuchasMiltonicorPlatonicwithcapitalisationfrequentlyusedbutnotalwaysandCHAPTER4 118CHAPTER4generallyvaryingthemeaningwhenitistheadjectiveinaPlatonicdialoguemeanssomethingverydifferentfromthatinplatoniclove.PoeticmetresandscientificunitsderivedfromnamesdonotuseinitialcapitalsawattandajoulebutcompoundtermsforscientificlawsandtestsgenerallyretaintheinitialcapitalonthepersonalnameparttheMannWhitneytestMurphyslawandHalleyscomet.InbiologicalnomenclaturetheLatinnamesofgenerabearaninitialcapitalbutspeciesnamesdonotasinRosmarinusofficinalis.SpecificbuildingnamesarecapitalisedtheTowerofLondonandtheChryslerBuildingbutnotgenericonesthetowerandahighrise.SimilarlytheshipandanairplanedonotusecapitalsbutthenamesofshipsandplanesshouldappearwithinitialcapitalstheSpiritofStLouisaBoeing747JumboJettheSSEdmundFitzgeraldandtheGoldenHindeastheseexamplesshowtheindividualnamesofshipsandplanesuseitalicfontaswellonwhichseeSection4.2.2below.Namesincludinganumberalsotendtobecapitalisede.g.Act4Flight679andRoute66andcrossreferencescanbeaswellasthoseinthisdocumentarewithaninitialcapitalonChapterorSectionortheycanappearinblockcapitalsasinSECTION4.2.Blockcapitalsofthissortcanbeusedforanumberofotherpurposesaswelltoemphasisewordsorshortphrasesmoreofteninindexesandothersupplementarymaterialthaninthemainbodyofapaperthoughsuchall-capitalwordscanopenapaperandoritssectionstotranscribematerialthatisitselfentirelyincapitalsfromRomaninscriptionsorcoinsforinstancetorecordmanuscriptsiglaLondonBritishLibraryMSRoyal5.B.XVIandotherinformationincludingRomannumeralsandtoindicatecharacternamesinpassagesquotedfromaplayorauthorsurnamesinabibliographyorreferencelistandIveevenseentheauthordateparentheticalreferencessetinblockcapitalstomatch. 119CHAPTER4AgoodandconventionalapproachforavoidingtheoveruseofcapitalisationandthusallowingittoachieveitspurposeistousealowercaseinitialletterinsteadwhenreferringbacktoacompoundpropernamethatwasintroducedininitialcapitalstheUniversityofVictoriaforinstancemightbereferredtointhenextsentenceastheuniversitytheFirstWorldWarinthenextparagraphasthewarandtheGreatFamineasthefamineinsubsequentmentions.AslongasthereisnopotentialforambiguityandthisapproachdoesnotconflictwithrelevantjournalguidelinesitcanworkwellbutifforinstancetwowarsortwofaminesareunderdiscussionthenitsbesttousethefullnameineachinstanceforclarityortodeviseasystemofabbreviationonabbreviationsseeSection5.2.2below.Generallyspeakinganysystemofcapitalisationthatisnotcumbersomeandisusedbotheffectivelyandrelativelyconsistentlybytheauthorevenifitpresentscapitalisationinwaysthatarententirelyconventionalorarealittlemoreorlesswidelyappliedthaniscommonlythecaseisworthmaintainingandimprovinginaccuracyandconsistency.4.2.2SpecialFontsforEmphasisItalicandBoldItalicfont.Likecapitalisationitalicfontisfrequentlyusedontitlesofvariouskindsandwhencapitalisationiskepttoaminimumwithonlyasinglecapitalatthebeginningofatitleforinstanceitalicisationisallthemoreimportantformarkingthewordsthatarepartofatitle.Insomereferencingstylesitalicsareusedforthetitlesofbooksandothermonographscitedinreferenceslistssuchasconferenceproceedingsandreportsaswellasforthetitlesofjournalsandincertaincasesthesesdissertationsandwebsites.Regardlessofwhichreferencingstyleisusedhoweveritalicfontshouldbeusedtomarktitlesinthemaintextandotherparts 120CHAPTER4besidesthereferencelistofapaperbutonlycertaintitlesThetitlesofbooksandotherpublishedmonographsOn-ScreenProofreadingAHandbookforEditorsofAcademicandScientificArticlesbutthetitlesofchaptersandessaysandotherpartswithinthemarenotitalicisedinsteadtheyareenclosedinquotationmarksseeSection5.3.1belowandtheBibleandtheKorandonotappearinitalicsorquotationmarks.ThetitlesofjournalsTraditioandotherperiodicalssuchasnewspapersandmagazinesTimebutnotthetitlesofarticlesandanyotherpartswithinthem.ThetitlesofplaysShakespearesHamletandfilmsGonewiththeWindbutnotoftheactsandsceneswithinthem.ThetitlesofmajormusicalworkssuchassymphoniesandoperasMozartsCosfanTuttebutnotwhenreferredtomorecasuallyBeethovensNinth.ThetitlesofradioshowsCBCsVinylCafeandtelevisionprogrammesGilligansIslandbutnotthetitlesofthesingleepisodesofeither.ThetitlesofalbumsandCDsSarahMcLachlansSurfacingbutnotthetitlesoftheindividualsongsonthem.ThetitlesoflongpoemsthatarevirtuallyabookinthemselvesandorcontainmanysectionsMiltonsParadiseLostorWordsworthsPreludeforexamplebutnotofthesectionswithinthemalsothetitlesofcollectionsofpoemsbutnotthetitlesofthepoemswithinthem.ThetitlesofpaintingsBotticellisBirthofVenusandsculpturesMichelangelosDavidbutifitalicsareusedforthenameofacycleofpaintingstheindividualpaintingswithinthecyclemightbedistinguisheddifferentlysimplybycapitalisationforinstanceorwithquotationmarks.Thetitlesofthesesdissertationsandwebsitesarealsooftenbutnotalwaysitalicisedinthemainpaper. 121CHAPTER4Althoughitalicisationlikecapitalisationshouldbekepttoaminimumitalicfontisusedforseveralotherpurposesaswell.ThenamesofplanesandshipstheSpiritofStLouisandtheSSEdmundFitzgeraldareusuallyitalicisedbutnottheSSpartwhetheritstandsforSailingShiporSteamShiporalternativelytheHMSpartwhichabbreviatesHisHerMajestysShipasarethenamesofpartieswhencitinglegalcasesbutnotwhensimplydiscussingthecasese.g.InSmithv.JonestheplaintiffMrSmithclaimedagainstMrsJones.Mathematicalvariablesoftenappearinitalicsandsocanthenumbersorlettersusedformarkingitemsinalistsometimesitalicfontisalsousedonjournalvolumenumbersinreferencelists.Stagedirectionsinpassagesquotedfromplaysgenerallyappearinitalicsandoccasionallycrossreferencesandotherinstructionstoreaderssuchasseebelowandoverleafdoaswell.Insuchcasestheitalicfontservestoemphasisethedirectionsorinstructionswhichisjustoneofthetypesofemphasisforwhichitalicscanbeused.Italicsarefrequentlyaddedtotheheadingsofsectionstablesandfiguresforinstancetodistinguishthemfromotherheadingsinwhichcasetheitalicsmightappearonanymentionsofthesepartsinthetextofthepaperaswellorusedontheplacementcuesfortablesandfigurestomakethemstandoutfromthesurroundingtext.Italicscanalsobeusedtoemphasisetermspoeticsdialysisetc.categoriesGroup1theseconddomainetc.phrasesinternalsettingwithartificiallightingandexternalsettingwithoutheatcharactersRomeoElizabethBennetandsoonandlettersbetc.thatarebeingintroducedandordiscussedseealsoboldfontbelowandquotationmarksinSection5.3.1below.Suchemphasiscanbeextremelyeffectiveforclarifyingacomplexdiscussionbutonlyifitisusedconsistentlyforequivalentconceptsappropriatelyforthedisciplineandsparingly.Whileeveryletterinadiscussionmayneedtobeitalicisedforclaritywhetherithasalreadybeenintroducedornotusingitalicfontonlyonthefirst 122CHAPTER4mentionorinitialexplanationoftermscategoriesphrasesandcharacterseffectivelyclarifiesthediscussionwithoutclutteringthetext.Moregeneraluseofitalicstoemphasisewordsshouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossibleinmostcasesemphasisviaeffectivevocabularyandsentencestructureismuchmoreeffective.AprimaryfunctionofitalicfontinEnglishscholarlywritingistomarkwordsandphrasesofforeignlanguagesthathavenotyetbeennaturalisedintoEnglish.Agooddictionarywillusuallyindicatewhetherawordorphraseshouldbeitalicisedornotusuallybyusingitalicsonthetermornotbuttheydovaryintheirrecommendations.Manyforeignwordsandphrasesdonotneedtobeitalicisedincludingposthocaprioriversuspassptavant-gardeandtheLatinabbreviationsusedinparentheticalandreferencematerialetal.i.e.e.g.vs.andthelike.IfawordorphrasedoesnotappearinEnglishdictionariesorifthereispotentialforconfusingaforeignwordwithanEnglishoneGermanLandforinstanceitalicsshouldbeusedandtheyshouldalwaysbeusedforbothgeneraandspeciesinbiologicalnomenclatureRosmarinusofficinalis.ItalicemphasisofthiskindshouldbeusedwithcareensuringforexamplethatforeignwordsandphrasessetinitalicswithinEnglishsentencesappearintheirnominativeformcornotcordisforinstance.ItshouldalsobeusedpredominantlyforshortpiecesofforeigntextlongerpassagesinforeignlanguagesshouldappearasquotationsinwhichcasethetextshouldbegivenpreciselyasitappearsinthesourceanditalicsarenotusedformoreinformationonforeignlanguagesseeButcheretal.2006pp.133137246247theChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter10Ritter2005Chapter12.ItalicfontshouldnotbeusedasamethodofmarkingquotationsquotationmarksdothatjobsoitalicsshouldnotappearonaquotationwhetheritisinEnglishoraforeignlanguageunlessitalicsareusedintheoriginalsourceoriftheauthor 123CHAPTER4wantstoaddhisorheremphasistothequotationifthelatteristhecasetheitalicsshouldbeacknowledgedastheauthorsowne.g.byincludingsomethinglikeitalicsmyownwiththecitationformoreinformationonitalicsinquotationsseeSection5.3.3.Boldfont.Boldfontisusedmuchlessfrequentlythanitalicfontbutitcanbeusedforanumberofthesamepurposesasitalicsare.ItisfrequentlyusedforthetitlesandheadingsofacademicandscientificpapersforinstanceandfortheheadingsandcaptionsoftablesandfiguresthoughsometimesonlyontheinitialpartTable1orFigure2.Insuchcasesthecorrespondingreferencestothefiguresinthearticleitselfaresometimesboldaswellandpositioningnotesfortablesandfiguresalsoappearinboldfontinsomepapersasdocrossreferencesthoughthatisrarer.Insomereferencingsystemsboldfontisusedinthereferencelistforarticleandchaptertitlesbutnotusuallyforbookorjournaltitlesaswellasforjournalvolumenumbers.Boldfontcanalsobeusedmuchasitalicfontistohighlightthenumbersorlettersofitemsinlistsandtoemphasisetermspoeticsdialysisetc.categoriesGroup1theseconddomainetc.phrasesinternalsettingwithartificiallightingandexternalsettingwithoutheatcharactersRomeoElizabethBennetandsoonandlettersbetc.itisextremelyeffectiveforrepresentingcoloureddecoratedorespeciallylargeletterswhentranscribingtextfrommanuscripts.Emphasisviaboldfontisoftenusedintextbooksguidebooksandothereducationalmaterialbutinmostcontextsittendstobefarrarerthanitalicsforsuchpurposesnodoubtbecauseitsadmirableabilitytomaketextimmediatelyvisiblealsocausesittoclutterandconfuseapagemorequicklythaneithercapitalsoritalicfontsoitshouldbeusedveryselectively.ForthemarkingofitalicandboldinmathematicsandthesciencesseeforinstanceButcheretal.2006Sections13.2.113.2.2andfortheuseofitalicfontinchemistryseeRitter2005Section14.4.2. 124CHAPTER4Punctuationitalicsandboldwithinitalicandboldfonts.Wheneitherboldoritalicfontisusedthefontstyleofpunctuationassociatedwithitshouldbeconsideredcarefully.Asageneralruleanypunctuationwithinthepassageinthespecialfontshouldalsoappearinthatspecialfontandanypunctuationoutsideofitshouldbeinaregularromanfont.ForexamplewhenacommaorfullstopfollowsawordorphraseinitalicorboldfontitusuallyappearsinregularromanfontWeanalysedtheuseofthewordcor.andwhenapossessiveisformedfromanitalicisednountheapostropheandsortheapostrophealoneifitisapluralshouldappearinromanfontHamletsmemorablecharactersandAnneofGreenGablesnaturalscenery.Howeverinsomeinstancesthespecialfontmayextendalittlewhenitcomestopunctuation.Whenforinstanceitalicorboldfontisusedonatitleorvolumenumberinareferencelistthefullstopcolonorotherpunctuationfollowingthepartinitalicsorboldmayalsoneedtoappearinthatfontandwhenaheadinginboldoritalicsisfollowedimmediatelybypunctuationasforinstanceparagraphheadingsareoftenfollowedbyafullstoporcolonthefullstoporcolonoftenappearsinthesamespecialfontasitdoesatthebeginningofthisparagraph.IfthereisaneedtouseitalicorboldfontonacertainwordorwordswithinalargerpassagethatisalreadyinboldoritalicfontthesolutionvariesdependingonthecircumstancesForboldfontwithinitalicstheboldissimplyaddedWhowouldhavethoughtPlatowouldbetheonetosaythatForitalicswithinitalicstheusualpracticeistoreverttoromanfontWhowouldhavethoughtPlatowouldbetheonetosaythatForitalicswithintheitalicfontofatitlehowevertheitalicsareretainedChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures.OccasionallytheitalicswithinitalicsinatitlemightbeindicatedbyquotationmarksChaucerIllustratedFiveHundredYearsoftheCanterburyTalesinPictures. 125CHAPTER4ForitalicswithinboldfonttheitalicsaresimplyaddedinopentextheadingsandtitlesalikeReflectingontheCanterburyTales.AlthoughextremelyrareboldfontwithinboldfontwouldlogicallyreverttoromanfontWhowouldhavethoughtPlatowouldbetheonetosaythatOnceselectedfontsoftenremainoninwordprocessingprogramsbeyondwheretheauthorintendedthemandsinceitcanbeverydifficulttodetermineataglancewhethersmallmarksofpunctuationareinaspecialfontparticularlyitalicsspecialcaremustbetakentoensurethatallpunctuationisconsistentlyintheappropriatefontaccordingtogoodpracticeguidelinesiftheymentionfontsatallandtheauthorspreferences.4.3SortingOutNumbersHyphensandDashesThesmallestthingscanoftenpresentthegreatestchallengeswhenitcomestoaccuracyandconsistencyinacademicandscientificwritingandcertainlythiscanbethecasewithnumberswhetherwordsornumeralshyphensanddashesbothenandemrules.Someauthorsareverycarefultofollowconventionalpracticeandmaintainconsistencywhenusingtheseelementsinformalproseandifthatsthecasewithapaperyoureproofreadingitsessentialtoretainandifnecessaryimprovetheauthorssystemonlyiftheauthorsapproachisunclearincorrectorpotentiallymisleadingshoulditbechangedinmajorways.VeryfewscholarlyauthorswillnotrecognisetheneedforanacceptableandconsistentsystemwhenusingnumbershyphensanddashesintheirwritingbutsomewillbelesscarefulthantheyoughttobesomewillfinditdifficulttodeterminewhichformsshouldbeusedinparticularsituationsandauthorswhosenativelanguageisnotEnglishwilloftenbeinfluenced 126CHAPTER4bytheacceptedpracticesintheirnativelanguageswhethertheyareawareofitornot.Theconfusionisfarfromsurprisingastheappropriatewaysinwhichtoformatandusenumbershyphensanddashesinformalprosedifferconsiderablyamongcountriesanddisciplinesandoccasionallyrequiresomecreativeadjustmenttoworkeffectivelyinagivenpaper.Journalguidelinessometimesprovidespecificadviceonusingnumbersmuchmorerarelydotheyofferinstructionsonusinghyphensanddashes.Ifthesemattersarecoveredintheguidelinesyourefollowingcareshouldbetakentoensurethattheauthorsstylematchesthatofthejournalasmuchasthatispossiblebutasageneralruleitisunwisetomakemajorchangestotheformatofnumbersforinstanceorthehyphenationofwordsinanarticlewithoutextremelygoodcause.YoumayneedtoreplacehyphenswithenrulesinpagenumberrangesinthereferencelistbecausethejournalguidelinescallforenrulesoryoumayneedtoreplacecommasbecausetheyhavebeenusedinnumeralsinsteadofdecimalsbyaEuropeanauthorsincebothofthesechangesarenecessaryandrelativelystraightforwardprocessesthatareeasilyexplainedandjustifiedinacommentitwouldbeappropriatetomakethem.Howeverifanauthorhashyphenatedatermorsetoftermscentraltotheargumentofthepaperandusedmorethanahundredtimesandyoususpectthehyphenationisntappropriateoriftheauthorhasusedaninconsistentnumberofdigitsafterthedecimalinreportingnumericalresultsandyouthinkitwouldbefarbetterwerethenumberofdigitsconsistentinallinstancestheseareissuesbestlefttotheauthor.Changingthemcouldnotonlyprovemajorbutitcouldalsobewrongandintroduceerrorssoabriefbutclearexplanationoftheprobleminacommentsothattheauthorcanassessthematterandmakethechangesheorsheconsidersrelevantwouldbefarmoreappropriate. 127CHAPTER4InthesectionsonnumbersandhyphensanddashesthatfollowIpresentawidevarietyofacceptableusageandformattingdrawnfromanumberofdifferentstyleguidesandjournalguidelines.Ifyoureworkingwithaparticularstyleorsetofguidelinesyoullneedtoprioritisethoserequirementsbutyoucouldcertainlyusetheinformationprovidedherewhendealingwithissuesnotcoveredbytheguidelines.Ifontheotherhandyoureworkingwithoutguidelinesandfollowingtheauthorspredominantusagetheinformationbelowwillproveparticularlyhelpfulindeterminingwhethertheauthorspracticesareconventionalandoracceptableforformalwriting.Aswithotheraspectsofproofreadingacademicandscientificarticlesconsistencyisessentialbutsincethepreciseuseofhyphensincomplexterminologythedifferencebetweenhyphensandenrulesinnumberrangesandtheslightvariationsthatcanoccurinrecordingnumberscaneasilyslippasttheeyeunnoticedwhenproofreadingespeciallywhenthetextpresentsotherchallengessuchasproblematicorincorrectlanguageyouwillneedtobeparticularlyvigilanttocatchanyproblemsandeithercorrectthemeffectivelyordrawthemtotheauthorsattention.4.3.1UsingandFormattingNumbersAppropriatelyHavingjustcarefullyrereadthesectionsonnumbersinaselectionofstyleguidesonerightaftertheotherIfindmyselfinsympathywithauthorswhohavetoincludemanynumberswhilewritinguptheirresearchanddosoinaclearconsistentandprofessionalmanner.Fortunatelythereareseveralpatternsofusagethataremaintainedacrossguidelinesbutnotallstyleguidesfocusonthesameissuesorapplythesamerulesandthereisconsiderableinconsistencyintheadvicegivenregardingcertainmatters.Eventhewayinwhichnumbersarereferredtowhiletalkingabouttheirformattingcanbe 128CHAPTER4contentiouswithsomeguidanceinsistingthatnumbersasnumeralsratherthanwordsshouldbecalledfigureswhileothersusenumeralsinsteadinthisbookImusingnumeralstoavoidconfusionwithfigureswhichIusewhenreferringtographsillustrationsandthelike.StyleguidestendtoassignanumberofthevariantpracticesassociatedwithnumberstotheconventionsofeitherBritishorAmericanEnglishandinsomecasesthelinktoonestyleortheotherisclearbutthereseemslittleconsensusonsomeofthesemattersanddifferentguidesbasedinonecountrycanvaryintheiradviceasmuchasguidesclaimingtopresentthetwodifferentstyles.Flexibilityisthereforeasnecessaryasexactitudewhencheckingnumberswhichmeansthatthemosteffectiveapproachissomewhatcontradictoryandratherdifficulttoachieve.Ahealthyshareofcommonsenseandalittleimaginationwillbeashelpfulasconsiderableknowledgeandextensiveexperience.Asageneralruleaproofreadershouldwatchforaccuracyensuringthatanynumbersrepeatedindifferentpartsofanarticleinboththetablesandthemainbodyofthepaperforinstanceareexactlythesameinallcasesandalertingtheauthortoanydiscrepanciesiftheabstractsaysthat45ofthesamplewasfemalebutthepaperitselfgivesthenumberas55orifthemethodologysectionclaimsthatthetrialsofastudyweretotakeplaceoverthecourseoffourweeksbuttheresultssectionreportsthemastakingplaceoverthreeweekstheauthorshoulddefinitelybeinformedinacomment.Ifbasedonotherinformationinthepaperyouresurethatoneortheotheriscorrectperhaps45isusedonlythatonetimeintheabstractbut55isusedseveraltimesinboththepaperitselfanditstablesyoucanmakethenecessarychangebuttheauthorshouldstillbeinformedoftherevisionjustincasethemorefrequentlyusedpercentagewastheerror.Theinformationreportedbythenumbersinascholarlypaperisinthefinalanalysisthe 129CHAPTER4responsibilityoftheauthorwhoshouldalreadyknowhowimportantitisthatallnumericaldatabecheckedwithcarebeforesubmittingthepaper.Sotheprimarytaskoftheproofreaderistoensurethattheformatsusedfornumbersinapaperconformeithertospecificguidelinesifprovidedortoconventionalscholarlypracticeintherelevantdisciplineandconventionalscholarlypracticeoftencomesintoplayevenwhentherearespecificguidelinestofollowbecauseinmanyinstancesjournalguidelineswillnotcoveralltheissuesassociatedwithformattingnumbersthatariseinapaper.AsyoureworkingrememberthattoabbreviatenumberNo.orno.shouldbeusedthesymbolisusedforthispurposeinNorthAmericabutbecausethisisnotitsmeaningeverywhereitsbestavoidedinscholarlyprose.WordsornumeralsOneofthemainconcernswhenusingnumbersinacademicandscientificwritingiswhethertheyshouldbeexpressedinwordsornumerals.Inmostcasesathresholdissetbelowthisthresholdwordsareusedtoexpressnumberswhereasaboveitnumeralsareused.Werethereonethresholdforeverydisciplineeverysetofguidelinesandeveryarticlelifewouldbeagooddealeasierforauthorsandproofreadersalikebutthereisnotandforverypracticalreasons.Inthehumanitiesandothernontechnicalcontextsforinstancethethresholdisoftensetat100whereasinmoretechnicalorscientificcontextswherenumberstendtobeusedmoreextensivelythethresholdisusually10forbooksonmusicthethresholdisoften12andforonlinewritingnumeralsareusedmuchmorefrequentlythanwordssoallnumbersmayappearasnumerals.EvenwithathresholdsethoweveruncertaintycanariseinsomecasesonlythenumbersbelowthethresholdnumbershouldappearaswordsRitter2005Section11.1.2describesOxfordstyleasusingwordsfornumbersbelow100innontechnicalcontextswhileinothersthethresholdnumbershould 130CHAPTER4alsobewrittenasawordtheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.380explainsthatwholenumbersfromonethroughonehundredshouldbewrittenaswordsinnontechnicalcontextsandinstillothersthethresholdmightsimplybementionedwithoutanyindicationofwhetherthethresholdnumbershouldbeanumeralorspelledout.Soiftheguidelinesyoureworkingwitharespecificonthispointensurethattheauthorhasfollowedthemaccuratelyandiftheyarenotspecificensurethattheauthorsformatwordornumeralforthethresholdnumberifitisusedisconsistentthroughoutthepaper.Althoughessentialthethresholdforwordsversusnumeralssetbyguidelinesanddisciplinesisonlyageneralrule.ThereareexceptionsthatapplyregardlessofwhattheprecisethresholdmaybeandtheseshouldbeobservedeitherbymakingminorcorrectionsoralertingtheauthortotheconventionifmoresignificantchangesarerequiredLargeroundnumbersareusuallyexpressedaswordsthreehundredandsixmillionorasacombinationofwordsorabbreviationsandnumerals6millionor6m.eveniftheyareoverthethresholdalthoughthisisrarerinthesciences.ApproximationsasopposedtoexactnumbersaregenerallywrittenaswordseveniftheyreoverthethresholdtherewereabouteightyofthemIthink.Foraseriesofquantitiesnumeralsareusuallyusedregardlessofwhetherthenumbersareaboveorbelowthethreshold271126425681101117and134.Whenasentenceorinsomecasesaparagraphcontainsoneormorenumbersthatareoverthethresholdaswellasnumbersthatareunderititisbestforbothconsistencyandlegibilitytousenumeralsforallthenumbersfrom90to120insteadoffromninetyto120andagedbetween8and16insteadofagedbetweeneightand16. 131CHAPTER4IftwosetsorcategoriesofnumbersareusedtogetherinasentenceclarityandlegibilityareoftenservedbyusingwordsforonesetorcategoryandnumeralsfortheothertheCambridgemanuscriptconsistsoffifty-sixfolioswith21linesoneachpagetheRoyalmanuscriptoffifty-onefolioswith24linestoapageandtheDoucemanuscriptofonlyforty-ninefolioswith27linesoneachpage.AllnumbersthatappearatthebeginningofasentenceshouldbewrittenaswordsSixty-fivewastheretirementagenot65wastheretirementage.AlternativelythesentencecanberephrasedorrearrangedtoavoidplacingthenumberatthebeginningTheretirementagewas65andifthenumberopeningasentencewouldbeparticularlycumbersomewhenspelledoute.g.16892thisshoulddefinitelybedone.NumbersusedforcertainpurposestendtobeexpressedasnumeralsregardlessofwhethertheyreoverthethresholdornotincludingpagenumberssectionandchapternumbersvolumenumbersofbooksandjournalsissuenumbersofjournalsnumbersofitemsinalistBiblechapterandversenumbersGenesis216appendixtableandfigurenumbersnumberswithintablesandfiguresnumbersinanabstractthoughthisisnotalwaysthecasebyanymeansactandscenenumberslineandcolumnnumbersreferenceandcross-referencenumberslegaldocumentnumbersnumbersthatareexactmeasuresnumbersthatappearbeforeabbreviations17mmpercentages25butifnotexacttheyoccasionallyappearaswordswithpercentorpercentnotwithscoresoftestsandgamesthenumberofpointsinascalea7-pointscalehousehotelapartmentandbuildingnumbersroadandhighwaynumbersyears19902013etc.althoughtheycanbewrittenoutifnecessaryatthebeginningofasentenceforinstancedaysofthemonthandunionandlodgenumbers. 132CHAPTER4Whenanumberispartofanalreadyhyphenatedcompoundanumeralshouldbeusedtoavoidexcessivehyphenationa27-year-oldwomannotatwenty-seven-year-oldwoman.Whilefractionslikewholenumberscanbewrittenaseitherwordsornumeralswhenwholenumbersandfractionsarecombineditisbettertousenumeralsweran7milesnotweransevenandthree-quartersmiles.Ordinalnumbersgenerallyfollowthesamepatternascardinalnumbersappearingaswordswhentheyarebelowthethresholdseventhandasnumeralswiththeappropriatesuffix62ndand123rdwhentheyareaboveit.Howeversomestyleswillrequireordinalnumberstobewrittenoutinsituationswherecardinalnumberswouldnotbeortobewrittenoutonalloccasionsexceptinnotesreferencesandquotationsinthelasttheformatusedinthesourceshouldbeobserved.Whencompoundnumbersarewrittenaswordstheyarehyphenatedtwenty-oneseventy-seventhetc.andthesameistrueoffractionsone-quarterandtwo-thirdsalthoughfractionscanbeleftopenandsometimesthisisdonetoindicateafocusonthenumberorindividualpartsofaquantityhegaveonethirdofthepietohisfriendandanotherthirdtohisbrotherratherthanontheproportionorsinglequantityhegavetwo-thirdsofthepieaway.Whenwrittenoutaswordsnumbersarepluralisedinthesamewayasotherwordssixesandsevenseightiesetc.althoughdozenhundredthousandmillionbillionandtrilliontendtoremainsingularfourthousandeightmillionetc.unlesstheyexpressindefinitequantitiesdozensoficebergsandhundredsofbirds.Pluralnumberscantakepluralorsingularverbsdependingontheprecisemeaningtherewereonlytwelvepeopletherebuttwelvepeopleisasmallturnoutthoughthelattercouldalsobewordedtoreflectboththepluralandthesingularnatureoftheconcepttwelvepeoplemakeasmallturnout. 133CHAPTER4Arabicnumerals.WhennumbersareexpressedasArabicnumeralsthepluralsareformedsimplybyaddingansnoapostropheisneeded1980sandhightemperaturesinthe30snot1980sandhightemperaturesinthe30sbutseveralotherformatissuesmustalsobeconsidered.Whennumeralsappearwithabbreviatedmeasures44cm12kgand20CthereshouldbeaspacebetweenthenumeralandtheabbreviationandtheabbreviationshouldnotbepluralisedformoreonabbreviationsseeSection5.2.2below.Whennumeralsappearwithotherlettershoweverthereisgenerallynospacebetweenthenumeralsandtheletterspp.33ffandQuestion2a.Innontechnicalwritingnumeralsoffour4567orfive78390digitsgenerallycontainacommaafterthethirddigitcountingfromtherightbutinsomecasesthecommaisnotusedinfour-digitnumerals4567ifthisisthecasethecommashouldnonethelessbeusedinfour-digitnumeralsthatappearinanyfiguresortablesandespeciallyinanycolumnsoftablesthatalsocontainnumeralswithfiveormoredigitssothatalignmentispreserved.Oftenintechnicalandscientificwritingthecommasarenotusedbutspacesareusedinstead4567and78390thoughthefour-digitnumeralcanappearwithoutthespaceifsoandfour-digitnumeralsappearinfiguresortablesagainespeciallyinthecolumnsoftablesalongwithnumeralsoffivedigitsormorethespacewillneedtobeaddedtopreservealignmentformoreinformationontablesandfiguresseeSections6.16.2below.Thesameprincipleappliestodigitsafterthedecimalpointafterthreedigitscountedfromtheleftaspaceisoftenused17.2398and5.34965butnotalwaysifthereareonlyfourdigitsandalignmentshouldbepreservedintablesandfiguresbyaddingthespacetofour-digitnumeralsthereifnumeralsoffiveormoredigitsalsoappear.EuropeanauthorswillsometimesuseacommainArabicnumeralswherethedecimalpointwouldappearinEnglishconvention345 134CHAPTER4insteadof3.45sothisshouldbewatchedforandchangedwiththereasonforthechangebrieflyexplainedonthefirstinstance.Besurehoweverthatthisisinfactwhattheauthorhasdonebeforemakingthechangeespeciallyifitinvolvesalargenumberofalterationsandcheckyourworkcarefullyitsalltooeasytointroduceerrorswhenmakingsuchtinychanges.Generallyspeakingdecimalfractionsshouldfeatureazerobeforethedecimal0.857especiallyiftheyarediscussedinrelationtoquantitiesof1.00andmoreifhoweverthequantityneverreaches1.00asinprobabilitiesandcorrelationcoefficientstheinitialzerocanbeomittedandthesameisthecaseinballisticsa.22-calibrerifle.Itcanattimesbedifficulttodeterminewhenazeroshouldappearandwhenitshouldntsogivecarefulthoughttoanychangesbeforeyoumakethemensuringthatyouunderstandthematerialperfectly.Iftheauthorssystemisconsistentalwaysusingazerobeforethedecimalforinstanceandtheresnoconflictwithguidelinesorpossibilityofconfusionthatsystemcanberetainedandimprovedifnecessary.Ifaspectsoftheauthorsmethoddoseeminconsistenthoweverorpotentiallyconfusingtheproblemshouldbebroughttohisorherattentionwhetheryoudecidetomakechangesnecessaryandstraightforwardonesyourselforleavethechangesmoremajoronesforinstanceoronesyoureunsureabouttotheauthor.Thesameisthecasewiththenumberofdigitsthatappearafterthedecimalpointinsomestylesthisnumbershouldbeconsistentacrossallnumeralsusedinaparticularcontextortablesoiffourdigitsisthemaximumnumberofpost-decimaldigitsinanynumeralthenallnumeralsshouldbearfourdigitsafterthedecimalandzeroescanbeaddedtoachievethiswhennecessary.Thisisbynomeansauniformconventionhoweversoonlyiftherelevantguidelinesspecificallyindicatetheneedtodososhouldzeroesbeaddedandeventhentheymightbebestlefttotheauthorwhocanbeinformedinacommentofanytroublinginconsistenciesyoumightnotice. 135CHAPTER4TechnicalwritinginanumberofthesciencescanpresentmanyotherformattingchallengesandissueswhichIdonthavetimeorspacetocoverherebutdetailedadvicecanbefoundinanumberofplaces.ButchersCopy-EditingButcheretal.2006forinstancehasahelpfulchapter13onScienceandMathematicsBookswithseveralsectionsfocussingonnumbersSection13.1.4onequationsSection13.2.5onmiscellaneousitemsandSection13.3onunitsandseparatediscussionsofastronomybiologychemistrycomputinggeologyandmedicinethechapteralsoincludesanexcellentlistofreferencespp.347349forfurtherhelpwhileworkinginthesedisciplines.NewHartsRulesRitter2005featuresasimilarchapter14onScienceMathematicsandComputingwithSection14.1.3forexamplecoveringnumeralsandSection14.1.4unitswhileothersectionsfocusondegreestemperaturesandsoonheretoothereareseparatediscussionsofcertaindisciplinesincludingbiologymedicinechemistrycomputingmathematicsandastronomywithhelpfuladviceonthecomplexformatsandpunctuationofnumeralsinthesedisciplines.Punctuationintheformofcommasorspacesisnotrequiredatallhoweverfornumeralsusedforcertainpurposessuchaspagecolumnandlinenumbershouseandhotelroomnumbersandreferenceandlibrarycallorshelfnumbers.ThenumeralsusedforyearsdatesgenerallydonotfeaturepunctuationeitherexceptBPandlongBCdatesformoreinformationontheformatsofdatesseebelow.Romannumerals.InsomeinstancesRomannumeralsareusedinsteadofArabicnumerals.IfyouareunsureabouthowRomannumeralsareformedandusedseetheopeningcommentsinSection11.4ofRitter2005aswellasSection9.69andthelistofRomanandArabicnumeralsp.398intheChicagoManualofStyle2003.Romannumeralsareusedwhenreferringtothepreliminary 136CHAPTER4pagesofbooksorjournalsandtheycanalsobeusedforthevolumepartchaptersectionandorappendixnumbersofbooksorjournalsforthesectionnumbersoflongpoemsfortheactandscenenumbersofplaysandforthenumbersoflegaldocuments.RomannumeralsareusedtonumbermoviesequelsRockyIIaswellandtheyarethenormalformatfornumbersinthenamesofboatsPachenaIIwhereasspacecraftforinstancetendtouseArabicnumerals.RomannumeralsarethenormtoointhenameofanindividualnamedafteragrandparentJohnBuckleyIIwerehenamedafterhisfatherJrorJr.wouldfollowthenameinsteadandinthenamesofmonarchsemperorspopesandprelatesforexampleKingHenryVandPopeJohnPaulIIthoughthesecanalsobewrittenoutinrunningtextHenrytheFifth.RomannumeralscanappearinallcapitalsXLVIIIoralllowercaselettersxlviiithisisalmostalwaystheformforreferringtothepreliminarypagesofabookbutoneformatshouldbeusedforthesamepurposethroughoutapaperChapterVIIIandChapterXIIInotChapterVIIIandChapterxiiithoughinsomestylesthecapitalisationofthenumeralsmightdependonthecapitalisationofthewordsthatprecedethemChapterVIIIbutchapterviii.Usingcapitalsforonelevelinahierarchyandlowercaselettersforanothercanaddtoclarityincross-referencingforexampleVII.iiimightbeareferencetothethirdpartofChapterVIIIofabookorthethirdsceneofActVIIIofaplaydependingonthetopicunderdiscussion.ARomannumeralusuallylowercasecanbeusedtoindicatethemonthindatesseebelowandinforeignlanguagesRomannumeralsareoftenusedtoindicatecenturies.WhentranscribingnumbersfromearlytextsmediaevalmanuscriptsforinstanceajwilloftenbeusedattheendofastringofisinaRomannumeralxviijthisisusuallyretainedinaliteraltranscription.RomannumeralsaresometimesusedtonumbertheitemsinlistsbuttheycanbecomecumbersomesoArabicnumeralsarebestwhenthere 137CHAPTER4aremanyitemsinalistandelidingRomannumeralscanbebothawkwardandunclearsoitisbestavoidedformoreinformationonelidingnumbersseebelow.Datesdecadescenturiesanderas.ForfulldatesArabicnumeralsshouldbeusedforthedayofthemonthandtheyearwhilethemonthisusuallywrittenoutinfullasaword.InBritishEnglishthecommonformatis19January2014andinAmericanEnglishJanuary192014inbothnocommaappearsbetweenthemonthandyearifnodayisgivenJanuary2014.AbbreviationscanbeusedforthenamesofmonthsJan.Feb.Mar.andsoonbutthefullnameshouldalwaysbewrittenoutwhenthemonthisusedaloneJanuaryFebruaryMarchetc..Ordinalnumbersaregenerallyonlyusedwhenthedayappearsalonetheyrecomingonthe19thalthoughthe19thofJanuarydoesreplace19Januaryinsomeinstancesoneortheothershouldbeusedconsistentlythroughoutadocument.IfthenameofthedayappearsbeforethefulldateitisfollowedbyacommaSunday19January2014forBritishEnglishandSundayJanuary192014forAmericanEnglish.All-numeraldatesarebestavoidedbecauseofthepotentialforconfusion100807is10August2007foraBritishreaderandOctober82007foranAmericanonesoifsuchasystemisemployeditneedstobeexplainedinthepaperandusedwiththeutmostconsistencyinBritishEnglishtheslashescanbereplacedwithfullstops10.08.07.SometimesRomannumeralsareusedformonthsinthisformatwhicheliminatespotentialconfusion10.viii.07.TheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationusestheorderyear-month-dayforall-numeraldateswithhyphensorenrulesseparatingtheelements2007-01-19thisformatisoftenseenintechnicalcontexts.Forprecisedatesinastronomydaysdhourshminutesmandsecondsscanbeused2009March3d5h22m8.9sascanfractionsofdays2009March3.365.An 138CHAPTER4exceptiontoconventionaldateformatsispresentedby911whichisnowinternationallyknownasareferencetotheattackontheWorldTradeCenterTowersinNewYorkon11September2001.Decadesarebestwrittenasthe1960sorthesixtiesratherthanthe1960sorthe60stheagesofindividualsindicatedindecadescanbehandledsimilarlyshesinhersixtiesbutshesinher60sisalsoacceptable.SometimesusingawordinsteadofanumeralforadecadeimpliesmorethansimplyaspanoftimeitcanconveyagreatersenseoftheculturalpoliticalsocialintellectualandartisticcharacteristicsofthedecadeasinthetwentiessometimescapitalisedastheTwentiesinsteadofthe1920s.Thiscertainlyisntsomethingthatshouldbeimposedonatextbutifyoudetectthattheauthorisusingsuchadistinctionitshouldberetained.Ifhoweveranauthorusesvaguereferencessuchaslatelyinrecentyearsoreveninthelasttenyearsthatcanbecomemisleadingastimepassestheauthorshouldbeinformedoftheproblemandifthechangetosomethingmorespecificisstraightforwardtheproofreadercanmakethatchange.Informalrunningprosecenturiesareusuallywrittenoutaswordsthetwenty-firstcenturythetwelfthcenturyorthesecondcenturyBCbutinnotestablesreferencesandthelikeabbreviationscanbeusedthe12thcent.forexample.RomancapitalssometimeslowercaseareoftenusedinotherlanguagestoindicatecenturiesasinleXVIIesicle.Fordatingmediaevalmanuscriptss.forsaeculumLatinforanagethepluralisss.alongwithaRomannumeralgenerallylowercaseisoftenuseds.xii.Whenusedasadjectivescenturiesrequirehyphenationatwenty-first-centuryvehicleoratwelfth-centurymanuscriptsometimesahyphenisaddedafterearlymidorlateaswellinboththenounandadjectiveformsthemid-twelfthcenturyandanearly-twelfth-centurymanuscriptbutthesearetechnicallybetterwithoutthe 139CHAPTER4additionalhyphenthemidtwelfthcenturyandanearlytwelfth-centurymanuscript.ADforAnnoDominiorIntheYearoftheLordandBCforBeforeChristarethemostcommonlyusederaabbreviationsinEnglishwriting.ToindicateBCdatestheabbreviationshouldfollowthenumerals310BCor10000BCandnoticethatwhereasfour-digitnumeralsforyearsdonotusecommasBCdatesoffiveormoredigitsdoasdoBPforBeforePresentdatesoffiveormoredigits.ADontheotherhandshouldappearbeforethenumeralsinadateAD1254orAD2013exceptwhenthedateiswrittenoutthefifteenthcenturyAD.NeitherBCnorADbutespeciallythelatterarestrictlyrequiredwithdatesunlesstherecouldbeconfusionbetweenthemorwithotherdatingsystemsbutsomeauthorswillusethemconsistentlyandtheyshouldcertainlybeusedtoavoidpotentialambiguityandwhenaspanoftimeextendsacrossbothBCandADdates87BCtoAD154.BCEBeforeCommonEraandCECommonEraareoftenusedbyauthorswhowanttoavoidChristiantermsindatesbothabbreviationsshouldfollowthenumericaldates156BCEand679CEandsoshouldtheBPabbreviationforBeforePresentdateswiththepresentfixedatAD1950whichtendtobeusedbypalaeontologistsandgeologistsfortimesmorethan10000yearsagoalthoughsomeauthorsuseBPlikeBCEandCEmoregenerallytoavoidChristianreferences.ForinformationontheuseofotherabbreviationsforerassuchasAHforAnnoHegiraeusedforIslamicdatesAMforAnnoMundiforJewishdatingASforAnnoSeleuciusedintheFarEastandothersseeRitter2005Section11.6.3.AlowercasebpbcoradisusedbyauthorstoindicatearadiocarbondatethathasnotbeenrecalibratedButcheretal.2006p.131sodobesurethisisnotwhatisintendedbeforecorrectingsuchabbreviations.TolearnmoreaboutthedifferentcalendarsinEnglishOldStylevs. 140CHAPTER4NewStylemodernstylevs.LadyDaystyleregnalyearsetc.andothertraditionsChineseGreekFrenchJapaneseJewishandIslamicMuslimseeforinstanceCheney2000Sections11.7and11.8inRitter2005andAppendix11inButcheretal.2006forawiderexplorationofcalendarcustomsseeBlackburnandHolford-Strevens1999.Time.Likedatestimecanbereferredtoinanumberofdifferentways.Wordsaregenerallyusedforperiodsoftimesuchasthetestlastedsevenweeksbutnumeralsareusedforexactmeasures.Wordsalsotendtobeusedforwholehoursorfractionsofanhourinwhichnohyphensareneededforexampleeightoclockhalfpasttwoandaquartertosix.Whenusinga.m.antemeridiemforthetimebeforenoonandp.m.postmeridiemforthetimeafternoonoclockshouldnotbeusedfiveoclockinthemorningor5a.miscorrect.Insteadofa.m.andp.m.capitalscanbeusedA.M.andP.M.whicharemorefrequentinAmericanEnglish.Noonandmidnighttendtobemoreaccuratethan12a.m.and12p.m.whichcanbeconfusingifnumbersarewanted12noonor12midnightcanbeused.The24-hourclockavoidspotentialconfusionalongwiththeuseofa.m.andp.m.because12.00isnoon17.00is5p.m.and24.00ismidnight.Whenthe24-hourclockisuseditsbesttouseafullstopinthenumbertoavoidconfusionwithayearmadeupofthesamenumeralstheyear1045butthetimeis10.45andthesameisthecasewiththe12-hourclockwhenminutesareincluded10.45a.m.or6.13p.m.acolonissometimesusedinNorthAmericaforinstanceinsteadofafullstop1045or613.Aslongasoneformofpunctuationisusedconsistentlyeitherisacceptable.Whenreferringtothelengthoftimesomethingtakesbothhyphenatedandpossessiveformsareacceptablea30-minutetrialora30minutestrial. 141CHAPTER4Currency.Currencycanbeexpressedinwordsoracombinationofawordandanumeralparticularlywhentheamountisaroundnumberbelowthewordnumeralthresholdusedinthepaperforrecordingnumberssevendollarseightpoundsnineeuro6centsand5pence.Howeveritismorecommonespeciallyforlargernumberstorecordcurrencyinnumeralsusingtheappropriatesymbolbeforethenumeralfor2336or48andafteritfor56and75pwithoutanyspacebetweenthesymbolandthenumeralineachcase.Iffractionalamountsappearalongwithwholenumberstheformshouldbethesameforallamounts28.0016.52and0.75not2816.52and75andthecentorpenceabbreviationshouldnotbeusedalongwiththedollarorpoundsymbol16.52isneverright.Forlargeamountssuchasmillionsandbillionswordsnumeralsandsymbolscanbecombined3millionor17billion.ThedollarsymbolisusuallyinterpretedastheAmericandollarsoifadifferentcurrencyisintendeditshouldbespecifiedCfortheCanadiandollarforinstanceorAfortheAustraliandollarandifthereisanychanceofconfusiontheAmericandollarcanbespecifiedaswellUS.ForpredecimalBritishcurrencybeforeFebruary1971poundsshillingsandpenceareusedwithforpoundssforshillingsanddforpence74s6d.Thelasttwoabbreviationsinparticularweretraditionallyitalicisedandfollowedbyfullstops4s.6d.butthisisoftennotthecaseanymore.Whenhistoricaltermsformoneyareusedguineaforinstanceorgroattheseshouldbeexplainedinthepaper.ForahelpfullistofcurrenciesoftheworldseeAppendixIXinPeters2004.Numberranges.Whenarangeofnumbersisexpressedwordscanbeusedalongwiththenumeralsfrom1066to1210orbetween1066and1210withthelatterslightlylessprecise.Alternativelyanendashcanbeusedwithoutspacesbetweentherelevantnumerals10661210butthetwosystemsshouldnotbecombined 142CHAPTER4inasinglerangefrom10661210andbetween10661210areincorrect.Strictlyspeakingusingahypheninsteadofanendashisincorrectaswellbutmanyauthorsuseahypheninnumberranges1066-1210andahyphenisoftenusedinthepagenumbersofreferenceexamplesprovidedinstyleguidesandjournalguidelinessoifhyphensareusedconsistentlytheycanberetainedthoughacommentalertingtheauthortothedifferenceisagoodideaformoreinformationontheuseofhyphensandenrulesseeSection4.3.2below.Spansofnumberssuchascontinuouspagenumbersareoftenelidedtothefewestdigitspossibleforexample324167731698731and17658butinsomestylesnumbersbeginningwithamultipleoftenarenotelided5056and200203andinAmericanEnglishpagenumbersareoftenuniformlyelidedtothelasttwodigitsunlessmorearerequired676976566and138287.Whenelidinginclusivenumberscontainingcommasallnumberstotherightofthecommaareusuallyrepeated8543552.Torefertoeventsthatoccurredbetweentwoyearsamultiplicationsymbolisoftenused1349x1367andtoindicateayearthatstretchesovermorethanonecalendaryearaslashorobliquestrokeisused201011withanendashlinkingaspanofyearsusingthisformatononeorbothsides201011201314.Itisacceptablehowevertopreservealldigitsinnumberrangessomeguidelineswillevenindicatethatthisshouldbedoneandincertaincontextsitsessentialthatelisionnotbeused.Romannumeralsshouldnotbeelidedforinstanceandneithershouldnumeralsusedintitlesandusuallyinheadingsthevitaldatesofpeopledaterangesthatcrossacenturyboundary14951506orBCdatesbecauseofthepotentialformisunderstanding16533BCmightbeeither165BCto133BCor165BCto33BCnumeralscombinedwithletterssuchasfolionumbersusingrectoandversoabbreviationsfolios27r32vordateswithcirca 143CHAPTER4abbreviationsc.1234c.1253andthenumerals10to19whethertheyconstitutethewholenumbersormerelythefinaldigits161911718and231213.Itsalsobesttoavoidelidingnumeralsassociatedwithmeasuresbecausebothascendinganddescendingscalescanbeusedso346couldmean34to36or34to6althoughifmeasuresareelidedconsistentlyandseemunambiguousthesecanbeleftastheyare.Bewareofincorrectandmisleadingelisionssuchas1600whichmeans1to600not100to600forthelatteritshouldbe100600and216Junewhichcouldpotentiallybereadaseither21to26Juneor21Mayto6Juneinsuchcasesthefullnumbersarebetter2126June.Wordsshouldbeusedinsteadofenruleswhenthenumbersarethemselveswrittenaswordseighttotwelveyearsofageandtheyareoftenbetterbecauselessawkwardthanenrulesinnumberrangesfeaturingotherelementssuchasthewordsin23Mayto12Junepreferableto23May12Juneorincompoundsthatalreadyusehyphenssuchas8-to12-year-oldsinsteadof812-year-olds.Authorsandguidelineswillvarywithregardtospecificformatsbutclarityandconsistencyareasalwaysthegoals.4.3.2HyphenationEnRulesandEmRulesHyphenation.Aconsistentsystemofhyphenationcanbeincrediblytrickytoestablishbecausetheuseofhyphensoftendependsupontheroleofawordorphraseanditspositioninasentenceaswellasonanauthorspersonalpreferences.Somesubjectswillhaveconventionalpatternsofusagesounlessitisincorrectormisleadinganauthorssystemshouldbepreservedandimprovedandsomejournalguidelineswillprovideadviceonusinghyphensbutthisisrareandoftenguidelineswillsimplyaskthathyphenationbekepttoaminimum.Thisisgoodadvicebecausealthoughsomehyphenated 144CHAPTER4termsaretraditionalhyphenstendtobeusedtoclarifytheauthorsmeaningandexcessivehyphenationcandefeatthispurposeaswellaslookingfussyanddatedRitter2005Section3.3.3.SomeauthorswhosenativelanguageisnotEnglishwillusehyphensthatareexcessiveorinappropriateinEnglishlikelybecausethestructuresoftheirownlanguagesleadthemtobelievesuchhyphensnecessarysotheproofreaderseyeshouldbealerttosuchmistakenusage.Yetcorrecthyphenationpatternscanvaryfromtermtotermandauthortoauthorandthereisatendencyforhyphenatedcompoundstobecomeclosedwithfrequentuseovertimethechangefromonlinetoon-linetoonlineisagoodexamplethoughasageneralrulehyphensareusedmoreextensivelyinBritishEnglishthaninAmericanEnglishsoagooddictionarythatprovidessomeadviceonhyphenationinoneorbothformsofthelanguageisessentialforlookingupindividualwordsandcompounds.Beyondfocussingonclarityofmeaningineachcaseofhyphenationtheproofreadersjobshouldbetoensurethateachhyphenatedelementremainsconsistentthroughoutasinglepaperandthatsimilarinstancesofhyphenationfollowthesamepatternssoastoavoidillogicalinconsistenciesasmuchasthisispossibleandsensible.AsImentionedinSection4.3.1hyphensareusedwhencompoundnumbersarewrittenoutaswordstwenty-fiveandeighty-nine.Althoughtheyarealsooftenusedbetweenthenumeralsinnumberrangesespeciallyforpagenumbersthisisnotstrictlycorrectandthehyphenscanbechangedtoenrulesifforinstancetheauthorsusageisinconsistentwithsomepagerangesfeaturingahyphenandsomeanenruleprefertheenrulewhileestablishingconsistency.Howeveriftheguidelinesyourefollowingactuallyshoworotherwiseindicatethatpagerangesshouldusehyphensinsteadofdashesandmanyofthemdooriftheauthorhasusedhyphensconsistentlyforthispurposethehyphenscanberetainedandtheir 145CHAPTER4consistencyimproved.Hyphensshouldalwaysbeusedinsteadofenrulestoseparatenoninclusivenumberssuchastelephonenumbers1-800-555-9687andalsotoseparateletterswhenwordsarespelledoutthenameisYasminethatsY-a-s-m-i-n-e.HyphensoftenappearinURLsaswellwhereitsessentialthattheynotbeconfusedwiththetildegraphemeorunderlining_.AhyphencanbeusedtoindicatestammeringorapauseinspeechIg-g-guessIshouldortheomissionofacommonelementinwhichcaseitisfollowedbyaspaceasinleft-andright-handedorupper-andlowercase.InsomestylesitisrecommendedthatthisconstructionbeavoidedviarewordingseeforinstanceButcheretal.2006p.153andifthecompoundsareunclearorpotentiallyambiguouseachwordshouldbewrittenoutinfull.Theprincipleshoulddefinitelynotbeappliedtothesecondtermthatisoverindulgedand-paidisincorrectandshouldbewordedoverindulgedandoverpaidseealsothediscussionofprefixesbelow.Inthedouble-barrellednameofasingleindividualahyphenisusedThompson-JonesarguespersuasivelybutforcompoundnounsandadjectivesderivedfromtwonamesanenruleisappropriatetheMannWhitneytest.InadjectivesofthissortahyphencanbeandoftenisusedinsteadoftheenruleMarxist-LeninistandahyphenshouldalwaysbeusedwhenthefirstelementcannotstandaloneasinSino-Japanese.WhenacompoundisformedfromnamesthatarealreadydoublehoweveritisessentialthatthedistinctusesofthehyphenandtheenrulebemaintainedforexampleSmithThompson-JonesreferstotwopeoplewiththefirstnamedSmithandthesecondThompson-JonesbutifahyphenwereusedinsteadoftheenruleasinSmith-Thompson-JonesoranenruleinsteadofthehyphenasinSmithThompsonJonesconfusionwouldbetheresult. 146CHAPTER4CompasspointsarehyphenatedinBritishEnglishnorth-eastandsouth-westbuttheyareclosedinAmericanEnglishnortheastandsouthwestthoughwhenanadditionalelementisaddeditisfollowedbyahypheninbothnorth-north-eastinBritishEnglishandnorth-northeastinAmerican.HyphensarenotusedinthenamesofwindsbasedoncompasspointswhichgenerallyappearasclosedsinglewordsasouthwesterlyandtheyarealsonotusedincapitalisedcompoundsbasedoncompasspointsforexampleSouthEastAsiawiththecompoundadjectiveopenistheformmostoftenusedinBritishEnglishandSoutheastAsiathedominantforminAmericanEnglish.Whenprefixesareaddedtowordsthecompoundtermshouldbeeitherhyphenatedpre-testormostoftenclosedpretestandagooddictionarywillusuallysuggestwhichisappropriatethiscandifferdependingonwhetherBritishorAmericanEnglishisusedwithAmericanEnglishusingclosedformsmoreoftenthanBritishEnglish.Ifthecompoundtermdoesnotappearindictionarieshyphenatingitisthesafestapproachifbothformsappearindictionariestheneithercangenerallybeusedaslongasnoconfusioniscreatedbythecompoundre-createforinstancedoesnotmeanthesamethingasrecreateandaproblematiccollisionofvowelsisnotencounteredinre-establishandanti-intellectualforexampleahyphenshouldalwaysappearbutthereareexceptionscooperateandcoordinateforinstanceareusuallyclosed.Whenaprefixisrepeatedahyphenshouldbeusedafterthefirstinstancesub-subsectionandahyphenshouldalwaysbeusedwhenaddingaprefixbeforeacapitalisedwordordateanon-Englishspeakerpro-Darwinismandpost-1960s.Ahyphenshouldalsoappearafteraprefixaddedtoatermthatisalreadyacompoundnon-self-indulgingandwhenthecompoundisanopenoneanenruleisusedinsteadofahypheninAmericanEnglishpreKoreanWar.Whenaprefixappearsaloneahyphen 147CHAPTER4mustbeusedtorepresentthemissingwordover-andundermagnifiedandwhenex-isusedtodenoteapreviousstateitisusuallyfollowedbyahyphenex-wife.Midisaspecialcasebecauseitnowstandsaloneasanindependentadjectiveinsomecontextsmidfourteenthcenturysowhileittoocanformaclosedcompounditisoftenfollowedbyahyphenevenwhenotherprefixesarenotasinamid-rangeprice.AhelpfullistofprefixesandthetermsformedwiththemalongwithhyphenationnotescanbefoundintheChicagoManualofStylesguidetohyphenation2003pp.306308andseealsothePublicationManualoftheAPA2010p.99.Whensuffixesareaddedtowordstheresultingtermisalmostalwaysclosedladylikedeathlesswindproofandlandscape.Howeverifthewordthesuffixisaddedtoalreadyhastwolsatitsendthenahyphenisneededbefore-lessand-likehell-likeandstall-lessandwhenthesuffixappearsafteranameorinrarecombinationsornewlycoinedtermsthehyphenisneededaswellLondon-likeandcoyote-like.Sometimesacompletewordsuchasstyleorreadyappearsasasuffixtoformanadjectiveinwhichcaseahyphenisgenerallyusedcomputer-stylegraphicsoracamera-readycopyandnotethatuser-friendlyfollowsthispattern.SuchtermsarereallyclosertotruecompoundsthanwordswithsuffixesattachedandcompoundscanbeopenhyphenatedorclosedwithsomecompoundshavingpredominantformsandothersappearingcorrectlyinallthreeformsRitter2005usestheexampleofairstreamair-streamandairstreamassertingthatallformsarefoundinuseandnoneisincorrectSection3.3.3.ThereishoweveratendencyinEnglishtoavoidhyphensinnouncompoundswiththepreferencebeingonewordinAmericanEnglishairstreamandtwowordsinBritishEnglishairstream.Generallyspeakingthennouncompoundsdonotrequirehyphensbutifthetextisunclearorcouldbepotentiallymisleadingahyphenshould 148CHAPTER4certainlybeuseddecisionmakingforinstancewouldnormallynotuseahyphenbutwhenanadjectivesuchasquickappearsbeforeittheintendedmeaningmaybeenhancedbyanaddedhyphenquickdecision-making.Whencompoundsactasmodifiersoradjectiveshyphenationismorecommonparticularlywhenthemodifyingcompoundprecedesthenounitmodifies.WiththeexceptionofpropernamessuchasGreatBritainandcompoundsformedfromanadverbendingin-lyandafollowingadjectivestrikinglybeautifulhyphenationisneverstrictlyincorrect.Yetitisnotalwaysrequired.Thereisadifferenceforinstancebetweenmodifyingcompoundsthatcontainanadjectivemassproducedandhighlevelandcompoundnounsstudentnurseandcouponbook.Bothtypesofcompoundmodifierscanbehyphenatedwhentheyappearbeforenounsahigh-levelexecutiveandastudent-nursepositionbutwhilethefirsttypeshouldalwaysbehyphenatedthesecondtypedoesnotrequireahyphene.g.masterbuilderJohnstudentnursepositionandcouponbookoffersinsomestylescompareRitter2005Section3.3.3forinstancewiththeChicagoManualofStyle2003p.303.AsageneralruleneithertypeofmodifyingcompoundrequireshyphenationwhenitappearsafterthenounitmodifiesthebookiswellknownandJohnisamasterbuilderbutheretoomattersarenotcompletelystraightforwardaccordingtosomestyleguidesamodifyingcompoundformedfromanadjectiveandaverbparticipleshouldbehyphenatedevenwhenitappearsafterthenounthequestionwasopen-endedorhewasgood-lookingbutthisisfarfromuniformagaincompareRitter2005Section3.3.3withtheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.302.Modifyingphrasesusethesamegeneralpatternofhyphenationwhenprecedinganounandanopenstructurewhenfollowingthenounup-to-dateresearchbuttheresearchwasuptodatethoughinsomestylesthemost 149CHAPTER4familiarphrasesarehyphenatedevenwhentheyappearafterthenountheapproachwasmatter-of-factseetheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.304.Certaincompoundsshouldneverbehyphenatedhoweverwhethertheyappearbeforeorafteranoun.Theseincludeadjectivalcompoundsinwhichthefirstwordisanadverbendingin-lyanenvironmentallysoundbuildingcapitalisedcompoundsNationalGalleryemployeesandcompoundscientifictermssodiumchloridesolution.Asageneralruleforeignphrasesshouldnotbehyphenatedadhominemargumentposthoctestorinvitrofertilisationunlessthehyphensappearintheoriginallanguageatte--tteconversationinsomeapproachesthispolicyisusedforitalicisedforeignphrasesonlywhereastheyaretreatedasEnglishphrasesoncetheyvebecomenaturalisedandappearinromanfont.Verbsformedfromtwo-wordnouncompoundsaregenerallyhyphenatedasintocross-referenceandtomachine-gunconverselyanounformedfromaphrasalverbiseitherhyphenatedoronewordtobackupthusbecomesbackup.FinallywhencapitalisinghyphenatedcompoundsintitlesandheadingsitwasoncethecasethatonlythefirstelementboreaninitialcapitalStudent-nursePositionsunlessthesecondelementwasapropernounorotherwiserequiredcapitalisationbutthecurrenttrendistocapitalisebothelementsStudent-NursePositionsintitlesandheadingsparticularlyiftheauthorisusingfullcapitalisationforthosetitlesandheadings.AcapitalonthefirstelementonlyisstilloftenusedatthebeginningofsentenceshoweverorintitlesandheadingsusingminimalcapitalisationStudent-nursepositions.Thelackofageneralruleregardinghyphenationandtheabundanceofvariantapproachesleavehyphensandtheproofreaderalongwiththemalittleupintheair.Clarityandprecisionofmeaningshouldbe 150CHAPTER4acentralgoalsoifyourenotsurewhattheauthormeansbecauseofhyphenationorthelackofitofferacommenttothateffect.Occasionalhyphenscanbeaddedbutonlytoavoidmisleadingorpotentiallyambiguousconstructionsortomaketheauthorsownusageconsistenthyphenscanberemovedforthesamereasons.IftheguidelinesyoureworkingwithaskthathyphenationbekepttoaminimumyoumaywanttoremoveanyunnecessaryhyphensthatotherwisemighthaveremainedtheChicagoManualofStylesguidetohyphenationwillbeparticularlyhelpful2003pp.302308andanyotherinformationonhyphensintheguidelinesyoureusingshouldbeobserved.Whetherworkingwithguidelinesorrefiningthepatternsoftheauthorsownusageconsistencyshouldbeagoalaswellbutnottothepointofobscuringmeaningsomecompoundtermswillneedtobehyphenatedandsomesimilaroneswillnot.Onlyiftheauthorssystemismanifestlymisleadingorincorrectperhapscentraltermsusedthroughoutthepaperarehyphenatedinawayyoufindmisleadingshouldmajororwide-rangingchangesbeconsideredandthentheyareprobablybestlefttotheauthor.Sofartheadviceonhyphenationinthissectionhasfocussedonhardhyphenshyphensthatisthataredeliberatelyandpermanentlypositionedtojoinwordsorpartsofwordsorotherelementssuchasnumbersintheformationofcompoundsbuttheyarenottheonlykindofhyphens.Therearealsosoftorfloatinghyphenswhichareusedtodividewordsattheendofthelinesinatexttocreateamorebalancedlayoutonthepage.Suchhyphensusuallyonlybecomeaconcernwhenadocumentprogressestopageproofsandarerarelyanissuewhenproofreadingacademicandscientificarticlespriortosubmissionbutifyoudofindyourselfproofreadinganarticleatsuchalatestageitsessentialtobeawarethatsomedivisionsarefarbetterthanothersandthatmisleadingdivisionsareunacceptableexact-ingis 151CHAPTER4anacceptabledivisionforinstancebutex-actingisnotandre-appearisappropriatebutreap-pearisnotforadetaileddiscussionoftheprinciplesofworddivisionwithplentyofexamplesseeRitter2005Section3.4.AmorecommonconcernwhenreadingscholarlypapersistheuseofWordsautomatichyphenationfunctionbecauseittendstointroduceinappropriateworddivisionsattheendoflines.Manypublishersfrownontheuseofautomatichyphenationandsomejournalguidelineswillevenaskthatitbeturnedoffasarticlesarepreparedsoifyounoticethattheauthorhasusedautomatichyphenationitsagoodideatosuggestthatitnotbeusedespeciallyifthedivisionsitintroducesareproblematicanddefinitelyiftherelevantguidelinesaskthatitbeavoided.FortunatelyifautomatichyphenationhasbeenuseditisoftennotretainedwhenacleanversionofatrackeddocumentisproducedviacopyingandpastingseeSection7.2belowaslongasyoudonotuseityourselfwhichneatlyresolvestheproblem.Whetherautomatichyphenationisusedornothoweversometimeswordsappearinginthecolumnsoftableswillbecomedividedinnonsensicalanddistractingwaysbecausethecolumnsaretoonarrowtoaccommodatethemforexampleperc-enta-gedividedoverthreelinesorMan-nW-hitn-eyT-estdividedoverfive.Intablesdesignedtoreportdatainanimmediatelydiscerniblevisualformthisisunacceptableandunattractive.Sodowatchforthisasyouproofreadandifthecolumnscansimplybemadealittlewidertoallowthewordsenoughspacewithoutaffectingotheraspectsofthetableanditsdatamakethechangeandinformtheauthorthatyouvedoneso.Ifhowevermoresignificantalterationstothestructureofatablearerequiredtoresolvetheproblembecauseforinstanceotherdatawillbecomecrowdediflocalchangesaremadeitsbesttoinformtheauthorandleavethenecessaryadjustmentstohimorher. 152CHAPTER4Enrules.Anenrulesometimescalledanendashislongerthanahyphenandshorterthananemruleitcanbeusedclosedupwithoutanyspacesarounditorwithspacesoneithersidedependingonitsfunction.Althoughithasveryspecificusesitoftenpresentsdifficultiesforauthorsandeditorsalikeparticularlybecauseofconfusionregardingwhetheranenruleorahyphenshouldbeusedinaparticularsituationandoccasionallywhetheranenruleoremrulediscussedbelowshouldbeused.IvealreadymentionedsomeoftheusesofenrulesinmydiscussionofnumbersSection4.3.1andhyphenationabovebuttheyareworthrepeatinginthelisthere.AnenruleisusedwithoutspacesarounditwiththemeaningtoorandinthefollowingsituationsBetweennumeralsthatformarangesuchaspagenumbersdatesandtimespp.173419982004and8.0011.00butrememberthatitshouldnotbeusedincombinationwithbetweenorfromthatisitshouldbe19982004from1998to2004orbetween1998and2004notfrom19982004orbetween19982004.Whenwordsareusedinsteadofnumeralsitsusuallybesttouseawordinsteadoftheenrulebetweenthenumbersaswell.BetweenwordsthatindicatearangesuchasmonthsanddaysoftheweekSeptemberNovemberorMondayFridayorlocationsonaroutetheYorkLondonrailwaylineortheNorthSydneyPortauxBasquesferrycrossing.Heretootheenruleshouldnotbecombinedwithfromandbetween.SometimesaslashorsoliduswillbeusedbetweensuchelementsifeitherorbothofthemconsistofmorethanonewordtheNorthSydneyPortauxBasquesferrycrossing.BetweenelementsofthedatesystemusedbytheInternationalOrganizationforStandardizationforexample20070119for19January2007. 153CHAPTER4Betweentheelementsofaratioinsteadofthewordtothesugarwaterratioforhummingbirdfoodforinstanceorthesmokersnonsmokersratiointhetrial.Acolonissometimesusedinsteadoftheenruleinthesecaseswithorwithoutaspaceoneachsidethesugarwaterratio.BetweenwordsornamestoindicateameetingplacesuchastheCanadaUSborderoracompetitionormatchsuchastheHabsBruinshockeygame.SometimesaslashorsolidusisusedinsteadoftheenruleinsuchcasesespeciallyifoneorbothoftheelementsconsistofmorethanonewordtheCanadaUnitedStatesborder.Betweenwordstodefineacloserelationshiptheauthorproofreaderrelationshiporredgreencolourblind.Aslashorsolidusissometimesusedinsteadoftheenruleinthesesituationsredgreencolourblindespeciallyifoneorbothoftheelementsconsistofmorethanoneword.Betweenwordstoindicateanalternativeasinanonoffswitchthoughaslashorsolidusisusuallyusedinsuchsituationsanonoffswitch.BetweenthenamesofthecoauthorsofatheoryortestasintheMannWhitneytestortheSmithJonestheoryandincompoundwordsoradjectivesderivedfromtwonamessuchasMarxismLeninismnounandMarxistLeninistadjective.BetweenthenamesofpeopleornationalitiestoindicateaconnectionofsomesortsuchasFrenchGermannegotiationsorChineseJapaneseheritagebutifthefirstpartofthecompoundisawordthatcannotstandonitsownaprefixforinstanceahyphenshouldbeusedinsteadFranco-GermannegotiationsorSino-Japaneseheritage.AfteraprefixinsteadofahyphenwhentheprefixisaddedtoanopenunhyphenatedcompoundsuchaspreKoreanWarbutthisismorecommoninAmericanthanBritishEnglish. 154CHAPTER4Inalloftheabovesituationshyphensareoftenusedinsteadofenrulesandsomeguidelineswillevenspecifyviainstructionsorexamplesthathyphenscanorshouldbeusedinpagenumberrangesforinstancebuthyphenscancauseconfusioninsomesituations.Red-greenwithahyphenforinstancemeansacolourthatisreddishgreennotredandgreenasinredgreencolourblindandauthor-editorwithahyphenmeansonepersonwhoisboththeauthorandeditorofaworkwhereaswithanenruleauthoreditorthetermreferstotwopeopleanauthorandaneditor.SimilarlySmith-JoneswithahyphenindicatesonepersonwithadoublenamewhereasSmithJoneswithanenruleindicatestwopeopleandcanindicatethisevenifoneofthenamesisdoublebarrelledSmithJones-KingstoninwhichthefirstpersonisnamedSmithandthesecondJones-KingstonwereahyphenusedinsteadoftheenruleasinSmith-Jones-Kingstonconfusionwouldensue.Ifsuchconfusionarisesinapaperyoureproofreadingtheproblemshouldbecorrectedortheauthorshouldbealertedtotheambiguitysothatheorshecanfixtheproblem.AnenrulewithaspacebeforeitcanbeusedtoindicatethatspeechbreaksoffabruptlyWellIthoughtasopposedtoapauseorstammerinspeechthatisusuallyindicatedbyahyphenseeabove.SpacedenrulescanalsorepresentindividualmissinglettersOhstalthoughemrulesseebelowareoftenusedtoindicateomissions.ThemostcommonfunctionofspacedenruleshoweveristomarkparentheticalclausesinwhichcasetheyindicateamorepronouncedbreakinthesentencethancommaswouldandhighlighttheparentheticalclausemorethanparentheseswouldemrulescanalsobeusedforthispurposeasnotedbelowoncommasandparenthesesseeSections4.4.14.4.2below.IftheclauseappearsinthemiddleofasentenceenrulesshouldbeusedtosurroundtheclauseIjustsawabearabigblackoneraidingthebirdfeeder. 155CHAPTER4WhentheclauseappearsattheendofthesentencetheopeningenrulefunctionsratherlikeacolononwhichseeSection4.4.1belowthoughitissomewhatlessformalandoftenexpressesanasideorafterthoughtandaclosingenruleisnotusedIjustsawabearabigblackoneNopunctuationshouldprecedeanopeningparentheticalenruleandwhiletheclosingenruleofaparentheticalclausecanbeprecededbyaquestionorexclamationmarkasIhaveintheexampleaboveitshouldnotbeprecededbyacommasemicoloncolonorfullstop.AlthoughtheuseofenrulesforthispurposeisacceptableinformalproseexcessiveuseofenrulesforparentheticalmaterialineverysentenceforinstanceispoorstyleandasageneralrulenomorethanoneparentheticalclausemarkedbyenrulesshouldbeusedinasinglesentencethoughIconfessthattheneedtoprovideexampleshasforcedmetouseinthisHandbookmoreclausesofthiskindthanInormallywould.Emrules.Anemrulealsoreferredtoasanemdashistwicethelengthofanenrulebuthassomesimilarfunctions.ItisusedforinstanceexactlyasanenruleistomarkparentheticalclausesbothwithinandattheendofsentencesespeciallyinAmericanEnglishorforAmericanpublishersbutwhenitisusedinthiswaynospacesappeararounditIjustsawabearabigblackoneraidingthebirdfeederandIjustsawabearabigblackoneAnemrulewithoutaspacebeforeitcanbeusedinsteadofanenruletoindicatethatspeechbreaksoffabruptlyWellIthoughtorthatawholewordspacesonbothsidesorpartofawordnospacebeforeismissingIwasverynearwhenithappenedandShehadanaffairwiththeDukeofB.Emrulesarealsousedinbibliographiesandreferenceliststorepresentthenamesoftheauthorsinsecondandsubsequentitemswrittenbythesameauthorsaswellasinindexesforrepeatedentryheadingsthoughsuchuseisrarelyaconcernwhenproofreadingarticlesbutthismethodshouldonlybeusedif 156CHAPTER4theauthorhasalreadyuseditandtherelevantguidelinesindicatethatitisacceptableotherwiseauthornamesshouldberepeatedinfullforeachsourceorentrylisted.Authornamesshouldalsobegiveninfullwhenevertheauthorshipchangesinanyway.PRSTipWhereashyphensareeasilyaddedtoatextbyusingastandardkeyonacomputerkeyboardwhenworkinginWordenrulesandemrulesarespecialcharactersandoftenproblemsassociatedwithbothkindsofdashesarecausedbecauseauthorsareunsureofhowtoproducethesedashes.TwomethodsareavailablebyclickingontheInserttabinWordandthenclickingontheSymbolbuttonatthefarrightandMoresymbolsatthebottomoftheboxthatcomesup.YoucanthenselectSpecialCharactersatthetopandeitherEmdashorEndashattheverytopofthelistasrelevantandclickontheInsertbuttonwhichwillinserttheselecteddashwhereveryouhaveleftthecursorinthetextsodobesuretopositionthecursorcorrectlybeforeusingthismethod.Youllalsofindtheshortcutkeysforbothkindsofrulesbyfollowingthispath.Wordwillautomaticallycreateenrulesandemrulesforyouhoweverifyoukeyintherightinformationintherightorder.Foranenruletypethewordthatshouldprecedetheenruleaddaspaceafterittypeahyphenortwoseebelowanotherspacethewordthatshouldfollowtheenruleandthenaspaceafterit.WhenthislastspaceisaddedtheprogramwillchangethespacedhyphenintoaspacedenrulebutitwillnotdothisiftherearenospacesaroundthehyphenorinsomecaseswhentheprogramdetectswhatitconsiderssomethingoddaboutthesentencestructureorpunctuationsoifyoudontwantspacesaroundtheenruleortheprogramisntcooperatingyoullneedtousetheInsertfunctionasaboveortheappropriateshortcutkey.Foranemruletypethewordthatwill 157CHAPTER4precedetheemrulethentypetwohyphensinarowwithoutanyspacesfollowedbythewordthatshouldfollowtheemruleandafinalspace.AgainwhenthelastspaceisaddedthedoublehyphenswillbetransformedintoanemruleunlesstheprogramdecidessomethingaboutthesentenceisoddinwhichcaseyouwillneedtousetheInsertfunctionortheappropriateshortcutkey.YouwillalsoneedtouseoneofthesemethodsifyouwantaspacedemrulebecauseifyouaddspacesoneithersideofthedoublehyphensWordwillturnthehyphensintoanenruleinsteadofanemrule.4.4SomeCommonProblemswithPunctuationandHowToResolveThemThereisnoonesinglesystemofcorrectpunctuationintheEnglishlanguageinsteadpunctuationisguidedbyitsfunctionleavingconsiderableroomforauthorpreferencesandindividualstyles.Eventhetiniestmarkofpunctuationcanhaveastrikingeffectonthemeaningofasentencehoweverandtheultimategoalshouldalwaysbeclarityofcommunicationandeaseofreading.Thissectiondealswithsituationsinwhichpunctuationtendstobeproblematicorinwhichpunctuationcanbedealtwithinmorethanoneway.InsomecasesthefocusisoncorrectusageandthepatternsthatarerequiredinformalEnglishprosewhileinothersmorethanoneapproachtopunctuationispossiblebutitisessentialthataparticularstylebeadoptedthroughoutapaperorinordertofollowspecificjournalguidelines.Inallcasesitisassumedthatthebestpolicyistofollowtheauthorsownsystemofpunctuationifthereisoneasmuchaspossiblewhileobservingbothcorrectusageandanyrelevantguidelinesandifthereisnoclearsystemtoaddaslittlepunctuation 158CHAPTER4aspossibletoclarifytheauthorsmeaningandavoidmisleadingthereader.Toachievethiseachsentenceinapaperwillneedtobereadwithgreatcareconsideringallthepossibilitiesregardingwhatanauthormaybetryingtocommunicateanddemonstratingsoundjudgementinsettlingupontherightone.Soundjudgementwhenitcomestoeditingpunctuationalsoincludesacknowledgingwhenyousimplycantbesurewhereorwhetherapieceofpunctuationisnecessaryandtakingthetimetoexplainthesituationthepunctuationoptionsandtheirvaryingmeaningsfortheauthorinsteadofdecidingwithoutsufficientevidencewhichoptionisintendedandsealingthatdecisionbyaddingordeletingpunctuation.ThissectionfocusesonpunctuationinthenormalrunningtextofanacademicorscientificarticlesoforadviceonpunctuatingreferencesforinstanceseeChapter3aboveandforpunctuationinrelationtoquotationsseeSection5.3.2below.CertaindisciplinestopicsandmaterialwillalsorequirespecialpunctuationproceduresseeforexampleChapter10oftheChicagoManualofStyle2003onForeignLanguagesandChapter14ofthesameonMathematicsinTypeSection13.10ofButcheretal.2006providesalistofsourcesforfurtherhelpwiththestylesandpracticesusedinmathematicsandthesciences.ThissectiondoesnotoutlinethegeneralrulesofpunctuationinEnglishtherearealreadyguidesthatdothatadmirablysuchasthePenguinGuidetoPunctuationTrask1997.4.4.1CommasSemicolonsandColonsErrorsandPreferencesCommas.AlthoughcommasindicatetheshortestpauseandsmallestbreakpossibleinasentencesstructuretheirappropriateusealsotendstopresentsignificantdifficultiesforauthorsandproofreadersparticularlyIsuspectbecausetheyareusedinsomanydifferent 159CHAPTER4situationsandareoftengovernedbyauthorandstylepreferencesratherthanbythestrictrulesofcorrectusage.Somefunctionsofthecommaaremorestraightforwardthanothersbutgenerallyspeakingvariationsarepossibleinalmosteveryinstancewhereacommamightbeuseddependingontheprecisemeaningcontextandsentencestructure.AcommaalmostalwaysappearsafteryesornoforinstanceYesIagreeorNoIdontthinksobutthereisinmostcasesnocommainanexclamationsuchasNononoAcommausuallyfollowsanameinadirectaddressSallywillyoupleasebringthebookorasalutationincorrespondenceDearSallybutinformalbusinesslettersinAmericanEnglishacolonisoftenusedinsteadandthereisatendencyinbothBritishandAmericanEnglishforpunctuationtobeomittedfromlettersifitisnotacommashouldalsoprecedethefinalsignatureYourssincerely.AcommaalsofollowsanexclamatoryohorahbutonlyifapauseisintendedOhwhatachillydayitsbeenbutOhnoandacommashouldnotbeincludedaftereitheroftheminavocativeconstructionOhcruelmaster.AcommaalsoappearsafterotherintroductorypartsofsentencessuchasaninitialadverbHowevertheresultsdidnotconfirmthisorConsequentlyhisresultsdifferedbutacommadoesnotfollowtheadverbifitmodifiesanadjectiveoranotheradverbHoweverhardheworkshewillnotsucceedalthoughinsuchcasesacommagenerallydoesfollowtheentireopeningclauseafterworkshere.IntroductoryadverbialclausesandindeedallinitialdependentorsubordinateclausesclausesthatisthataredependentuponthemainclausethatfollowsareroutinelyfollowedbyacommaAfterrunningallthewayhomeshewasexhaustedorIfsheranallthewayhomeshewouldbeexhausted.ThecommaisnotnecessaryhoweveriftheintroductoryphraseisshortparticularlyifitindicatestimeorlocationOnMondayshegoestotheparkorifthedependentclauseimmediatelyprecedestheverbitmodifiesOutofthehouse 160CHAPTER4walkedthemantheywerelookingfor.ThecommaisalsonotrequiredifthedependentclausefollowsthemainclauseandisrestrictiveordefiningwhichistosaythatitcannotberemovedwithoutsignificantlyalteringthesentencesmeaningShewasexhaustedafterrunningallthewayhomebutifthedependentclausethatfollowsisnonrestrictiveornondefiningwhichmeansthatitaddssupplementaryinformationthatisntstrictlyessentialtothesentencesmeaningacommashouldbeusedShewasexhaustedifyouaskme.Itcanattimesbedifficulttodeterminewhetheraclauseisrestrictiveornotsoifyouareindoubtsuggestinginamarginalcommenthowacommaorthelackofonemightalterthemeaningisagoodidea.ThispatternofusagealsoappliestootherrestrictiveandnonrestrictiveclausessuchasrelativeorparentheticalclausesiftheclauseisnecessarytothemeaningofthesentencerestrictivenocommaisneededbeforeitandnocommaisneededafteriteitherifitappearsinthemiddleofthesentenceThepeoplewholivethereendurethisweatherdailybutifitissupplementaryacommashouldprecedetherelativeorparentheticalclauseandfollowitaswelliftheclauseappearsinthemiddleofthesentenceThepeoplewhospeakthenortherndialectendurethisweatherdaily.InrestrictiverelativeclauseseitherwhichorthatisacceptableSheobservedhimwithaclosescrutinywhichhefoundunsettlingorSheobservedhimwithaclosescrutinythathefoundunsettlingbutinnonrestrictiveclausesthatshouldnotbeusedandwhichisthecorrectchoiceThepaperwhichwasverywellwrittenwassubmittedtothejournaleditor.InAmericanEnglishthereisatendencytousethatinsteadofwhichforrestrictiverelativeclausessoifAmericanEnglishisrequestedbytheauthorortheguidelinesheorsheisfollowingitsagoodideatousethatforsuchclauses.FinallyifthemeaningisclearthewordthatisntstrictlynecessarythebookIreadisas 161CHAPTER4correctasthebookthatIreadandsometimessuchwordingcanbesmootherandlesscumbersome.Sodokeepyoureyesopenforsuchsituations.Thesamegeneralprinciplesofusageapplytowordsphrasesclausesorabbreviationsinappositionnocommasarerequiredaroundtheappositivepartofthesentenceifitisrestrictiveandthereforeessentialtothesentence.InthecaseofanameforexamplethismeansthattheappositivepartspecifieswhichoneofmorethanonepersonorthingisintendedThemediaevalpoetDantewrotetheDivineComedy.IfhoweverthenameandthemediaevalpoetaretransposedinthesentencethemediaevalpoetbecomesnonrestrictiveprovidingsupplementaryinformationaboutthenamedpoetandshouldthereforebeenclosedincommasDantethemediaevalpoetwrotetheDivineComedy.InsuchconstructionsapairofenrulesoremrulesseeSection4.3.2aboveorapairofparenthesesseeSection4.4.2belowcaninsteadsurroundthenonrestrictivematerialbuttheyimplyarelationshipbetweenthenonrestrictivematerialandthesurroundingtextthatisnotascloseasthatimpliedbycommasDantethemediaevalpoetwrotetheDivineComedy.Parentheticaladverbsorinterjectionsthatappearmid-sentencearesimilarlyenclosedincommasAllthetrialsthereforewererepeatedItisuncertainhoweverwhetherthetrialscouldberepeatedandThatindeedwastheresultweexpectedbutiftheadverbisessentialtothemeaningoftheclauseorsentencenocommasshouldbeusedTheparticipantswerewillingandthetrialswerethereforerepeatedandTheresultswereindeedpredictable.CommasshouldnotbeusedforanappositiveorparentheticalphrasethatispartofanamesoFredthearchitectfromtheshopdrewtheplansiscorrectwithcommasbutFredthearchitectdrewtheplansiscorrectwithoutthem. 162CHAPTER4Inaseriesorlistofthreeormoreitemswhetherwordsphrasesorclauseswiththefinalitemprecededbyaconjunctionandororcommasareusedaftertheitemsthatarenotfollowedbyaconjunctionbutwhetherornotacommaknownasaserialcommashouldappearbeforetheconjunctionisamatterofdebate.NocommaisrequiredforcorrectEnglishusageinsuchcasesShebroughtapplesstrawberriesandpearsandDaveboughtthesteaksSarahgrewthevegetablesandVictormadethewineevenifthelastitemisacompoundjoinedbyaconjunctionShebroughtapplesstrawberriesandpearsandsauce.Ifthispracticeofnotusingaserialcommaisadoptedbyanauthororrequestedbyguidelinesitshouldbemaintainedconsistentlythroughoutapaperunlessasituationarisesinwhichconfusionmightresult.WhenacompounditemjoinedbyaconjunctionappearsbeforethemainconjunctioninalistforexampleusingacommabeforethatmainconjunctioncanhelpclarifytheauthorsmeaninginShebroughtwinecheeseandlettucesandwichesandpiesforinstanceifthecommadidnotappearbeforethefinalandthepiestoomightbeunderstoodascontainingcheeseandlettuce.Aserialcommacanbeusedinthiswaywhennecessarytoavoidambiguityinspecificsituationsevenwhenserialcommasarenotgenerallyusedinanarticle.WhenserialcommasareusedbyanauthororrequiredbyguidelineshowevertheyshouldbeusedinallseriesorlistsofthreeormoreitemsShebroughtapplesstrawberriesandpearsDaveboughtthesteaksSarahgrewthevegetablesandVictormadethewineShebroughtapplesstrawberriesandpearsandsauceandShebroughtwinecheeseandlettucesandwichesandpies.TheserialcommaisusedparticularlyinAmericanEnglishandbyUSpublishersbutitisalsousedbyOxfordUniversityPresshenceitsalternativenameOxfordcommaandsomeotherUKpublisherssoanauthorsrequestforBritishorAmericanEnglishdoesnot 163CHAPTER4necessarilydecidetheissue.Sincesomejournalguidelinesdoprovideadviceonwhethertouseaserialcommaornotandmostauthorswilltendeithertousesuchacommaornotguidelinesandauthorpreferencesaremorereliablebutiftheauthorhasnoclearsystemandvacillatesbetweenusingaserialcommainsomesituationsandnotinotherswithoutanyparticularpatternorlogicbehindtheusageonestyleshouldbeimposedbytheproofreaderthroughoutthepaper.IdeallythestyleadoptedwillbetheonetheauthorusesmostoftenbutifnoonemethodisclearlyfavouredbytheauthorBritishorAmericanEnglishasspecifiedbytheauthorortherelevantguidelinescanbeusedasthedecidingfactorortheserialcommacansimplybeomittedinordertokeeppunctuationtoaminimum.Ifhowevertheauthortendstousealotofcompoundsjoinedbyconjunctionsinseriesusingserialcommasthroughoutmaywellbethebestchoicetoensurebothconsistencyandclarityofcommunication.Ifoneormoreoftheitemsinaseriesorlistislongandcomplexorusesadditionalpunctuationsemicolonsinsteadofcommasshouldbeusedbetweentheitemsseebelowinwhichcaseafinalsemicolonshouldappearwheretheserialcommanormallywouldevenifserialcommasarenotgenerallyusedinthepaper.Ifontheotherhandconjunctionsareusedbetweenallitemsinalistorseriesapplesorpearsororangesnocommasareneededbuttheycanbeusediftheitemsareparticularlylongorcomplexandthecommaswillhelpclarifythemeaning.Whileyoureproofreadingseriesandlistsitsalsoimportanttoensurethatonlyitemsthatshareavalidsyntacticalrelationshipwiththeintroductorypartofthesentencebelinkedwithcommasandafinalconjunctionforexamplethearticlemustbewellwrittencarefullyresearchedanduseaserialcommaconsistentlyispoorerstylethanthearticlemustbewellwrittenandcarefullyresearchedanduseaserialcommaconsistentlybecause 164CHAPTER4thethirditemdoesnotworksyntacticallywiththeintroductorythearticlemustbe.WhenanampersandisusedinsteadofandinaseriesausagethatisgenerallyonlyacceptableinparentheticalandsupplementarymaterialstheuseofaserialcommabeforeitcanbedeterminedbytheusageelsewhereinthepaperShebroughtapplesstrawberriespearsorShebroughtapplesstrawberriespearsbuttheserialcommaisoftennotusedbeforeanampersandevenwhenserialcommasarethenorm.Finallyalthoughtheabbreviationetc.shouldalsobeavoidedintherunningtextofformalprosewhenitisusedinparentheticalmaterialortablestoendaseriesitshouldbeprecededbyacommaifaserialcommaisusedelsewhereinthepaperShebroughtapplespearsorangesetc.tothepartybutnotifaserialcommaisnotusuallyusedinthepaperShebroughtapplespearsorangesetc.tothepartythoughwithetc.theserialcommaissometimesusedevenifitisnotthenorminanarticle.Ifthesentencecontinuesaftertheseriesetc.isoftenbutnotnecessarilyfollowedbyacommaShebroughtapplespearsorangesetc.althoughshedidntneedtobringanything.WhenanEnglishequivalentofetc.andsoforthandsoonorandthelikeisusedinthemaintextinsteadofetc.itshouldbeprecededbyacommaornotaccordingtotheusageelsewhereinthepaperShebroughtapplespearsorangesandtheliketothepartyorShebroughtapplespearsorangesandtheliketotheparty.Formoreinformationontheampersandandetc.seeSection5.2.2below.Likeserialcommasthepunctuationusedbetweenmainandindependentclausesisoccasionallymentionedintheguidelinesofacademicandscientificjournalssodocheckforsuchadvice.GenerallyspeakingwhentwomainclauseswhethertheyshareasubjectorhavedifferentsubjectsarejoinedtogetherintoonesentenceviaacommaaloneasinIlovereadingnovelsIgotothelibraryeveryweekendorWewereterrifiedoneelderlywomaneven 165CHAPTER4hadaheartattackthisisanerrorspecificallyacommaspliceandmustbecorrected.AsemicoloncanbeusedinsteadofthecommaIlovereadingnovelsIgotothelibraryeveryweekendtofixtheproblemorafullstopandcapitalcanbeaddedtodividetheincorrectsentenceintotwoWewereterrified.Oneelderlywomanevenhadaheartattack.Alternativelythecommacanberetainedandaconjunctionandorbutetc.addedbetweenthetwoclausesWewereterrifiedandoneelderlywomanevenhadaheartattackbutifaconjunctionisusedandtheindependentclausesareshortandcloselyconnectedthecommamaynotbenecessaryHebrokethesoilandshepulledtheweeds.ThecommamayalsonotbenecessaryifthesentencesclausesresultinacompoundpredicatetwoormoreverbswiththesamesubjectinsteadofindependentclausesbuttheconjunctionisrequiredinsuchcasesIlovereadingnovelsandIgotothelibraryeveryweekend.IfthereisanypotentialforconfusionhoweveracommashouldbeusedforexampleifthecommawerenotincludedinRexdidnotrecognisethemanwhoclimbedthroughthewindowandbarkedthesentencewouldimplythatthemanclimbingthroughthewindowratherthanthedognamedRexwasdoingthebarking.AcommasplicealsooccurswhentwomainclausesarelinkedonlybyanadverboradverbialphraseShewasangryneverthelessshesmiledorTheyfrightenedhimasaresultheranaway.ThebestsolutiontothisproblemistouseasemicoloninsteadofthecommaandoftenacommaaftertheadverboradverbialphraseisappropriateaswellShewasangryneverthelessshesmiledorTheyfrightenedhimasaresultheranaway.Lessstraightforwardistheuseofcommasbetweentwoormoreadjectivesprecedinganounandalthoughrulescanbefoundinstyleguidestheyvaryconsiderably.TheChicagoManualofStyle2003forinstanceexplainsthatiftheadjectivescouldwithoutaffecting 166CHAPTER4themeaningbejoinedbyandtheadjectivesarenormallyseparatedbycommasbutifthenounandtheadjectiveimmediatelyprecedingitareconceivedasaunit...nocommashouldbeusedp.250.Followingthismethodfaithfulsincerefriendbearsacommabutmanyyoungfriendsdoesnot.NewHartsRulesRitter2005Section4.3.4ontheotherhandsuggestsanapproachbasedonthetypeofadjectiveusedwithadjectivessuchaslargesmallhappyandsadbeinggradableorqualitativeadjectiveswhileadjectivessuchaswhiteblackBritishanddangerousareclassifyingadjectives.AccordingtothissystemRitter2005Section4.3.4acommaisneededtoseparatetwoormorequalitativeadjectivessuchasatallthintreebutnocommaisneededtoseparateadjectivesofdifferenttypesasmallwhitedogorclassifyingadjectivesthatrelatetodifferentclassifyingsystemsannualenvironmentaldamageorItalianmediaevallovepoets.Whicheversystemisusedwhenanadjectiveisrepeatedbeforeanounmanymanytouristsvisitthecathedralacommaisusuallyinsertedbetweenthetwoinstances.Exceptionscanbemadetoalltheseruleshoweverdependingonauthorpreferencesthedesiredeffectandtherelevantguidelinesintechnicalwritingforexamplecommasareoftenkepttoabareminimumandasageneralruleitsbettertousefewercommasthanmoresomeauthorswillusenoneatallbetweenadjectivesmuchasitisbettertouseoneortwoadjectivesperfectforthecontextthanalongstringofthem.CommascanalsobeusedaroundinterjectedphrasesbeginningwithnotornotonlyTheauthorherselfnothergraduatestudentorteachingassistantpreparedthebibliographybuttheyarenotasnecessarywhentheclausesareshortsimpleandcloselyrelatedTheyaddednotchocolatesaucebutwhipcreamandsomestyleguidesandfarmorerarelyguidelineswillindicatethatcommasshouldbeusedornotinthesesituations.Theprincipleis 167CHAPTER4similarwiththemore...themorethemore...thelessandsimilarstatements.AcommashouldbeusedbetweenlongerclausesbutnotbetweenshortphrasesforexamplethemoreIlearnabouttheweatherherethelessIliketheideaofstayingbutthemorethemerrier.CommasareoftenusedtointroducebriefquotedmaterialaswellasdirectspeechAccordingtoSmiththetrialwassuccessfulandRobertrepliedIdontthinksobutifaconjunctionsuchasthatorwhetherisusednocommaisrequiredSmitharguedthatthetrialwassuccessfulandifthequotationislongerorthecontextmoreformalacolonshouldbeusedinsteadofacommaseebelowoncolonsandformoreinformationonpunctuatingquotationsseeSection5.3.2.MaximsandproverbsareusuallytreatedmuchasquotationsandappositivesaremakinguseofacommawhennecessarytoclarifythesenseSallyspersonalmottotheearlybirdgetsthewormisnotminebutThemottotheearlybirdgetsthewormisoneIshouldobservemoreoften.AcommaisalsousedtointroduceaquestioninrunningtextSheaskedhimhowwillthisaffectmypositionandalthoughnoinitialcapitalisrequiredtobeginthequestionifthequestionislongorcontainsinternalpunctuationaninitialcapitalcanbehelpfulSheaskedhimIfIgothroughwiththisplanhowwillitaffectmypositionNoticethatquotationmarksarenotrequiredthoughtheycanbeusedtoindicatedirectspeechandwhenthequestionisindirectneitherthecommanorthequestionmarkisneededeitherIwaswonderinghowitwouldaffectmyposition.Commasareoftenusedinanellipticalwaytoindicatetheomissionofawordorwordsbutthemissingelementsmustbeobviousfromthecontextandthewordsthatareprovidedforexampleintheevergreenstherearefournestsofrobinsinthedeciduoustreesfiveofsparrowsinthemarshsnagssixofchickadeesinwhichthewordsthereare...nestsarerepresentedbyeachofthe 168CHAPTER4commas.ThecommasmaybeomittedhoweverifthemeaningisclearwithoutthemtherobinsreturnedinMarchthechickadeesinAprilandthesparrowsinMay.Thissortofellipticalstructuretendstobeeitherunderusedoroverusedbyauthorsandwhileremovingwordsfromtheauthorstexttoformsuchanellipticalsentenceisnotagoodideaunlessthestructureisalreadypartiallyformedandyouresimplycorrectingorimprovingitaddingmissingwordsthatarenotclearorobviousiftheauthorhasusedthissortofsentencestructureoralertingtheauthortotheproblemifellipsesaresooverusedthatthemeaningisunclearisessential.Alsoessentialisensuringthatcommasareproperlyusedinnumberstomarkthethousandsforinstancein365000123650001321365000etc.datesafterthedayinMarch32013inAmericanEnglishforexampleformoreinformationonthepunctuationinbothnumbersanddatesseeSection4.3.1aboveandaddressesandplacenamesinrunningtextforinstancecommasareusedtoseparateaddressesandplacenames16578FarmRoadLongPondNewfoundland.Suchusagemayseemsimplebuterrorsandcomplicationsassociatedwithcommasarisewithsurprisingfrequencyinscholarlyarticlessoitsimportanttoremainalerttothesmalldetailsofcommauseaswellasthelargerpatternsandthemoresubtletouches.AsaninstructiveexampleofthelastthefollowingtwosentencesbasedonButcheretal.2006p.155wherefurtherexamplescanbefoundshowhowasinglecommacanchangethemeaningofasentencesubtlyyetmarkedlydemandingattentiveproofreadingandifnecessarythoughtfulcorrectionSheclaimedthatshehadalreadypaidtheparkingticketinordertoconvincethetowtruckdrivertoreleasehercarsheclaimedthisinordertoconvincethetowtruckdriver.Sheclaimedthatshehadalreadypaidtheparkingticketinordertoconvincethetowtruckdrivertoreleasehercarshepaidtheticketinordertoconvincethetowtruckdriver. 169CHAPTER4Semicolons.Thefunctionsofthesemicolonareactuallyratherlimitedandcomparedwiththoseofthecommaextremelystraightforwardyetthesemicolonisfrequentlymisusedbyauthorsofallkinds.ThepauseitindicatesisstrongerthanthepausespecifiedbyacommaandweakerthanthatindicatedbyafullstopseeSection4.4.2belowanditseffectissomewhatdifferentfromthatofthecolonbutthesemicolontendstobeusedinerrorwhenoneofthosethreetypesofpunctuationwouldbemoreappropriatejustasacommastoporcolonissometimesusedinplaceswhereasemicolonisneeded.Inmostcasesasemicolonresemblesafullstopinfunctionwithitsmostcommonusebeingtoprovidepunctuationbetweentwoindependentclausesthatarenotjoinedbyaconjunctionandcouldweretheyseparatedbyafullstopinsteadformtwosentences.HoweverthesemicolongenerallyimpliesacloserrelationshipbetweenthetwoclausesthanafullstopmightSallyintendedtoplantthegardenSaturdayafternoonafrostwarningforSundaynightpreventedherfromdoingso.Acolonshouldnotbeusedinsteadofasemicolonbetweensuchclausesunlessthesecondclausespecificallyexplainsillustratesorprovidesexamplesofwhatisassertedinthefirstclauseseethediscussionofcolonsbelow.AsemicoloncanalsobeusedinsteadofacommabetweentwomainclauseswhethertheyfeaturedifferentsubjectsorsharethesamesubjectthatarejoinedbyaconjunctionandalreadymakeuseofinternalcommasinwhichcasethesemicolonindicatesastrongerdivisionthanthecommasandclarifiesthesentencestructureOnasunnySaturdayafternoonSallyintendedtoplantthetomatoesbeansandcarrotsaswellastheradishesbroccoliandsproutsbutafrostwarningforSundaynightpreventedherfromplantingthetomatoesbeansandcarrots.Whentwomainclausesarelinkednotbyaconjunctionbutbyanadverbsuchasindeedhoweverthereforeorneverthelessorby 170CHAPTER4anadverbialphraseasemicolonshouldbeusedbeforetheadverboradverbialphraseSallyintendedtoplantthegardenSaturdayafternoonhoweverafrostwarningforSundaynightpreventedherfromdoingsoandTheyfrightenedhimasaresultheranaway.SemicolonsarealsousedtoclarifyboththedivisionsandtherelationshipsbetweentheitemsinaseriesorlistinwhichtheindividualitemsarecomplexandalreadycontaincommasandorotherpunctuationSheexplainedinsupportofhersonthathehadbeenexperiencingrecentdifficultiesincludingbreakingupwithhisgirlfriendthathehadnotbeenabletofindajobalthoughhehadbeensearchingeverydaythathehadnevercommittedacrimebeforeasanadultinanycaseandfinallythathehadalreadyreturnedthelawnmowertohisneighbourofferingasincereapologywhenhedid.SemicolonsareoftenusedwhenlistingthecopyrightholdersofmaterialusedinanacademicorscientificpaperWearegratefulforpermissiontoreproduceimagesofmanuscriptsfromthecollectionsbelongingtotheLincolnCathedralLibrarytheBodleianLibraryOxfordtheUniversityLibraryCambridgeandtheWorcesterCathedralLibrary.Semicolonsarealsousedtoseparateindividualin-textreferencesintheauthordatesystemwhentwoormorereferencesaregatheredinasinglesetofparenthesesJones2003Smith2006Taylor2012andtheycanbeusedinasimilarwayinanotesystemofreferencingwhenmorethanonereferencewhethercompleteorshortenedisincludedinasinglenoteHardmanPresentingtheTextOlsonRomancingtheBookTolkienTheHobbit.InfullbibliographicalreferencesasemicolonisusedinsomereferencingstylesbetweenthenameofthepublisherandthedateofpublicationseeforinstancetheexamplesofafullbibliographicalreferenceinSection3.1.3aboveandoccasionallyinotherpositionsaswell.Asemicoloncanalsobeusedinsteadofafullstopwhenworkingtoavoidanumeralorsymbolthatwouldbeawkwardatthebeginning 171CHAPTER4ofasentenceforexampleAlthoughweapproachedanequalnumberofmenandwomenwhenestablishingthesamplemorewomenthanmenrespondedpositively.145womenagreedtotakepartinthestudybutonly103menwishedtoparticipaterequiresrewordingtoavoid145attheopeningofthesecondsentencebutwritingthenumeraloutinwordstocorrecttheproblemwouldbesomewhatawkwardunless103iswrittenoutaswell.ByusingasemicoloninsteadofthefullstoptheproblemisresolvedmoreeasilyandmoretidilyAlthoughweapproachedanequalnumberofmenandwomenwhenestablishingthesamplemorewomenthanmenrespondedpositively145womenagreedtotakepartinthestudybutonly103menwishedtoparticipate.Becausetheinformationprovidedafterthesemicolonhereprovidesexplanatorydetailsaboutwhathascomebeforeitacolonwouldbeaviablealternativetothesemicoloninthisparticularsituationseebelow.Colons.Aswiththesemicolonthefunctionsofthecolonarewelldefinedandrelativelystraightforwardyetittooisoftenmisused.Asageneralruleitshouldnotbeusedasasubstituteforasemicoloncommaorfullstopbecauseitssignificanceisdifferent.AsNewHartsRulesputsitusingacolonintheprocessacolonpointsforwardfromapremisetoaconclusionfromacausetoaneffectfromanintroductiontoamainpointfromageneralstatementtoanexampleRitter2005Section4.5.Functioningmuchasthewordsnamelyforinstanceforexamplebecausethatisandothersdoacolonintroducesanexplanationelaborationillustrationdescriptionorexampleofwhathasgonebeforeit.ThreeofthevegetablescouldnotbeplanteduntilalldangeroffrosthadpassedthetomatoesthebeansandthecarrotsusesacoloncorrectlyandlikethequotationfromNewHartsRulesRitter2005abovealsodemonstrateshowthetextfollowingacolonneednotcontainaverborbeabletostandonitsownasasentenceorindependentclause.Acoloncanbeused 172CHAPTER4insteadofasemicolonhoweverbetweentwoindependentormainclausesbutonlywhenthesecondclausespecificallyexplainsillustratesorotherwiseelaborateswhathasbeensaidinthefirstWewereallsoterrifiedbutespeciallythecustomersoneelderlywomanwhohadcomeintothebanktomakeadepositevenhadaheartattackSallydidnotplantthegardenSaturdayafternoonasshehadintendedafrostwarningforSundaynightpreventedherfromdoingsoandAlthoughweapproachedanequalnumberofmenandwomenwhenestablishingthesamplemorewomenthanmenrespondedpositively145womenagreedtotakepartinthestudybutonly103menwishedtoparticipate.AcolonisoftenusedtointroducealistorseriesofitemsThreeofthevegetableswereaffectedbythefrostthetomatoesbeansandcarrotsandisfrequentlyusedforthispurposeafterthewordsasfollowsorthefollowingThefollowingvegetableswereaffectedbythefrostthetomatoesbeansandcarrots.AcolonshouldnotbeusedhoweverbeforealistorstatementthatisintroducedbyaverboraprepositioninsuchawaythatthelistorstatementcorrectlycompletesthesentencebegunbytheintroductorywordswithouttheuseofacolonThevegetablesaffectedbythefrostincludetomatoesbeansandcarrotsandThebookfocuseson1northerngardening2rootvegetables3delicateplantsand4constructingcoldframes.AcoloncanhoweverbeusedinsteadofafullstoptointroduceaseriesofrelatedsentencesasinthefollowingexampleAnumberofproblemsarisewhenseedsareplantedtooearlyandexposedtospringfrostsForoneveryfewseedswillsproutifthegroundandairaretoocool.Secondsomeseedsmightevenfreezeifthetemperaturedropstoolow.Thirdthoseseedsthatdosproutmayresultinweakplants.Finallyifthefrosttouchestheseedlingsespeciallytomatoseedlingstheywillverylikelydie. 173CHAPTER4NoticethatIhaveusedacapitalimmediatelyafterthecoloninthisexampleprimarilytodemonstratehowafullsentencefollowsacolonbutthiswouldbeanappropriateformatforAmericanEnglishinwhichacolonisfollowedbyacapitalifitintroducesagrammaticallycompletesentence.InrunningtextinBritishEnglishhoweverthewordfollowingacolonisusuallynotcapitalisedunlessitisapropernounsoForoneintheaboveexamplewouldprobablybeforoneinBritishEnglisheverythingelsewouldremainthesame.ParagraphheadingsparticularlyinabstractsaresometimesfollowedbyacolonthatfunctionsinasimilarintroductorywayandiftheheadingisinaspecialfontthecolonusuallyisaswellObjectivesThetwoprimaryobjectivesofthisresearchwere.AcoloncanalsobeusedtointroducedirectspeechasitisinthisformatoftenusedinscholarlypaperstorecordthedialoguefrominterviewsSALLYItssowarmandsunny.IthinkIllplantthegardentoday.ROBERTIwouldnttheweathermanisforecastingfrostforSundaynight.HerethewordsfollowingthecolonsshouldbecapitalisedtomarkthebeginningofthedirectspeechregardlessofwhetherBritishorAmericanEnglishisused.AcapitallettercanalsofollowacolonthatisusedtointroduceaquotationorextractJ.R.R.TolkiensHobbitbeginswithalinethattheauthorapparentlyscribbledonastudentpaperhewasgradingInaholeinthegroundtherelivedahobbitwiththecapitalbeingmostlikelyifthequotationbeginswithafullsentenceorcontinuesformorethanonesentenceformoreinformationonquotationsandthepunctuationassociatedwiththemseeSection5.3below.Sinceauthorpreferencesnormallydeterminethissortofcapitalisationexceptinthoserarecasesinwhichjournalguidelinesprovideadviceonthetopicitisessentialtoensurethatwhateverformatisusedwiththecolonis 174CHAPTER4usedconsistentlyforidenticalorsimilarsituationsthroughoutapaper.AcolonisalsousedespeciallyinAmericanEnglishatthebeginningofaformalspeechletterorothercommunicationimmediatelyafterthementionofthoseaddressedasinLadiesandGentlemenorToWhomItMayConcernorDearEditorbutacommaisusuallyusedforthesamepurposeinBritishEnglish.ColonsoftenappearintitlesaswellprimarilybetweenthemaintitleandsubtitletointroducethelatterasthecolondoesinthetitleofthisbookOn-ScreenProofreadingAHandbookforEditorsofAcademicandScientificArticles.Ifapropernounfollowsthecoloninsuchtitlesitshouldbearaninitialcapitalbutotherwisethecoloncanbefollowedbyeitheranuppercaseorlowercaseletterdependingontheauthorspredominantusageandortherelevantguidelinesregardingtheformatoftitlesandheadingswithconsistencybeingaprimarygoal.Acoloncanalsobeusedwithorwithoutspacesarounditinratiosaratioof21andwithoutspacesinchapterandversereferencestotheBibleGenesis216andinURLsthePRSwebsiteathttpwww.proof-reading-service.com.FinallycolonsarealsousedtopunctuatefullbibliographicalreferencesincertainstylesacolonoftenappearsforinstancebetweentheplaceofpublicationandthepublisherafterinorInwhenreferringtoachapterinabookandbeforeissueandpagenumberswhencitingjournalarticlesseetheexamplesofafullbibliographicalreferenceinSections3.1.23.1.4above.InsomeofthesituationsinwhichacolonisusedtointroduceabriefexplanationorexampleofwhathasgonebeforeforinstanceorabrieflistorquotationadashenruleoremrulecanbeusedinsteadofthecolonThefrostdestroyedsomeofthevegetablesthetomatoesbeansandcarrots.Howeveradashismoreinformalandtendstoimplyanasideorafterthoughtratherthanamainideasoitis 175CHAPTER4notreallyinterchangeablewithacolonandacolonshouldbeusedinmostcases.Whetheracolonoradashisemployedonlyoneofthemshouldbeusednotboth.Itwasoncecommonpracticetouseacolonfollowedbyadashtointroducealistorotherdisplayedmaterialsuchasablockquotationbutthisisnolongerthecasesoonlyiftheauthorisquotingfromanearliersourceshouldthisconstructionberetainedotherwisethedashshouldbedeletedleavingthecolonalone.4.4.2StopsApostrophesQuestionandExclamationMarksBracketsandSlashesFullstops.FullstopsalsocalledfullpointsorparticularlyinAmericanEnglishperiodsareprimarilyusedtomarktheendofcompletedeclarativeandimperativesentencesseealsothediscussionofquestionandexclamationmarksbelow.AfullstopalsoappearsattheendofcompletebibliographicalreferencesinmostreferencingstylesseeChapter3abovethoughinmanycasesthestopisomittedifthereferenceendswithaURLorDOI.Ininformalwritingandespeciallywhendirectspeechisrecordedafullstopisoftenusedattheendofsentencesthataretechnicallyincompletebutsuchincompletesentencesshouldnotbeafeatureofacademicandscientificarticlesexcepttorepresentquotedspeechinterviewsandthelikeaccurately.AsinglefullstopsufficestocloseasentencesoifanabbreviationendingwithastopseeSection5.2.2belowformoreinformationontheuseoffullstopsinabbreviationsoranyotherexpressionthattakesafullstoponitsownappearsattheendofasentencenoadditionalstopisnecessaryThetrialtookplaceat9a.m.iscorrectnotThetrialtookplaceat9a.m..Astopisgenerallynotusedondisplayedlinesoftextsuchastitlesheadingssubheadingsrunningheadingsandshortcaptionsbutparagraphor 176CHAPTER4run-inheadingssuchastheoneinboldfontatthebeginningofthisparagraphdotakeafullstoporinsomecasesacolonseeSection4.4.1andthestopshouldusuallybeinthesamefontastheheading.Sometimesafullstopappearsattheendoftableheadingsandfigurecaptionsparticularlyiftheyarelongorconsistofmorethanonesentenceinthelattercasethefullstopisusuallynecessaryandsomejournalguidelineswillrequireastopaftertableheadingsandfigurecaptionsregardlessoftheirlengthandstructure.AsinglespacenottwoshouldfollowafullstopexceptwhenthestopappearsinaURLoremailaddressinwhichcasenospaceshouldfollowthestop.Whenanentiresentenceisenclosedeitherinparenthesesorsquarebracketsthefullstopshouldappearwithintheparenthesesorbracketsasitdoesinthefinalsentenceofthisparagraph.Ifontheotherhandthematerialwithinparenthesesorbracketsappearswithinanothersentencethefullstopshouldappearaftertheclosingparenthesisorbracketasitdoesinthefirstsentenceofthisparagraph.FortheplacementoffullstopsinrelationtoquotationsandquotationmarksandfortheuseoftriplestopsorellipsesseeSection5.3.Apostrophes.Theprimaryuseofapostrophesinformalscholarlyproseistoindicatepossession.Astandardsingularpossessiveorgenitiveisformedbyaddinganapostropheandansstotheendofawordbutthatdoesnotapplyinallsituationssometimesespeciallyforpluralsanapostrophealoneisaddedmorerarelyansaloneisaddedandmostrarelyseisadded.BecausethecorrectformatissomewhatunpredictableandisinmanycasesbasedonpronunciationoreuphonyitcansometimesbedifficulttodecidewhatthatformatshouldbeespeciallyforauthorswhoarenotnativespeakersofEnglish.Soerrorsintheuseofapostrophesforpossessivesarerelativelycommonanditmaybehelpfultolistthesituationsinwhicheachpossessiveformshouldbeused. 177CHAPTER4AddanapostropheandanstoSingularnounsthedogscollarandthebasssmouth.SingularpropernounsnamesreferringtopeopleplacesandbusinessesMarysbookJamesshouseMarxstheoryCanadasnorthandaLevisstore.Indefiniteorimpersonalpronounssuchasoneanyoneandeverythingonemustdoonesdutyoranyonesperspective.SingularacronymsandinitialismsWHOspoliciesortheAPAsstyleseeSection5.2.2onabbreviationsbelow.Singulardates2014sworststorm.Pluralnounsthatdonotendinansthemensversusthewomensscoresandchildrensliterature.AddanapostrophealonetoPluralnounsthatendinansthedogscollarsandtheparticipantsresponses.PluralpropernounsnamesthatendinanstheSmithshouseandtheWilsonsdinnerparty.PluralacronymsandinitialismsKIskeyinformantswereusedandtheKIsresponseswererecordedseeSection5.2.2onabbreviationsbelow.Pluraldatesthe1990sworststorm.Singularnounsthatendwithanssoundiftheextraswouldmakepronunciationdifficulttheoasisbeauty.SingularpropernounsnamesthatendwithanssoundiftheadditionalswouldmakepronunciationdifficultandparticularlyifthenameislongandnotaccentedononeofthelasttwosyllablesNicholasapproach.SingularpropernounsnamesoftwoormoresyllablesinwhichthelastsyllableispronouncedizoreezBridgesbookandtheGangesroute. 178CHAPTER4SingularnounsandnamesinFrenchendinginasilentstoavoidanawkwardormisleadingappearanceDescartesphilosophyandthemarquisestate.ClassicalnamesendinginsoresEuripidestragediesSocratesspeechandDionysusrituals.ForshortclassicalnamesthescanbeusedhoweverZeussandwhenclassicalnamesareusedinscientificcontextsthesisusuallyincludedMarssorbit.SingularnounsandnamesendinginanssoundandusedalongwithsakeforgoodnesssakeandforJesussake.Inforoldtimessakethewordtimesispluralsotheapostropheappearsalonethereaswell.NamesofplacesororganisationsthattakeapluralformorwhoselastelementtakesapluralformendinginseventhoughtheplaceororganisationissingulartheUnitedStateseconomyandtheCentreforMediaevalStudiescourses.AddansalonetoThepersonalpronounsouryourherandtheir.Althoughthesearealreadypossessiveformsourhouseyourbooketc.anscanbeaddedforasomewhatdifferentuseofthepossessivethehouseisoursthebookisyoursthedogishersandthecottageistheirs.Thepronounitthetreelostitsbranchesinthestorm.Whenbothanapostropheandansareaddedtoittheresultisnotapossessivebutacontractionmeaningeitheritisorithas.NamesofwarsknownbytheirlengththeHundredYearsWarnottheHundredYearsWar.NamesofsomebusinessesandinstitutionswhethersingularorpluralthatwereoriginallypossessivebutarenowgenerallywrittenwithoutanapostropheaWoolworthsstoreandtheCitizensAdviceBureau. 179CHAPTER4AddsetoTherelativepronounwhotheboywhosemotherarrived.Whosecanalsoserveasthepossessiveofwhich.SomeauthorswhoareuncomfortablewiththeserulesandexceptionswilloptforanalternativemethodmentionedintheChicagoManualofStyle2003pp.283284ofusinganapostropheandsinmostcasesbutomittingtheadditionalswheneverawordalreadyendswithansbutasthismuchsimplerapproachdoesnottakepronunciationintoconsiderationmanywillnotfinditacceptable.Soiftheauthoryoureworkingforisusingthissimplemethoditcanbemaintainedandmademoreconsistentbutitshouldnotbeintroducedtoanarticleiftheauthorisfollowingorattemptingtofollowthemorecomplicatedandacceptedrulesoutlinedaboveinsteadthemorecomplicatedapproachshouldberetainedandadjustedtoimprovebothformatandconsistency.Whenformingthepossessiveofcompoundnounsorofphrasesthepossessiveindicatorshouldbeaddedafterthelastnounusingbothanapostropheandansifthatnounissingularmymother-in-lawsbakingmybrothers-in-lawswivesandtheQueenofEnglandscorgisbutanapostrophealoneifitispluralthepresidentoftheUnitedStatesaddressandthestudentnursesschedule.ForasetoflinkednounstheapostropheandsshouldbeaddedonlyafterthelastnounifthenounsareactingtogetherintermsofmeaningasisthecasewiththejointauthorsofasinglepieceofwritingorthejointownersofahouseKerby-FultonHilmoandOlsonsbookBeaumontandFletcherscomedyandmymotherandfathershouse.IfhoweverlinkednounsareactingseparatelytheapostropheandsshouldbeaddedtotheendofeachofthenounsTaylorsandFredricksonsstudiesonthe 180CHAPTER4subjectSidneysandShakespearessonnetsandmymothersandfathersidealsdiffer.ApossessivecanbeusedonanameornountoindicatearesidenceorplaceofbusinesswithoutactuallymentioningtheresidenceorbusinessforasingularanapostropheandsisusedgoingtothedoctorsandabarbequeatTomsandforapluralanapostrophealoneisusedadinnerpartyattheSmiths.Possessivescanalsoindicatethelengthofaperiodoftimeinboththesingularandthepluralamomentsnoticeadaysdelayinfourdaystimeandsixweeksholiday.Thispossessiveisnotusedhoweverinsimilaradjectivalconstructionssheissixmonthspregnant.ApossessiveformcanalsobeusedalongwithofinakindofdoublepossessivewhenoneofseveralthingsofthesamekindisintendedaspeechofObamasandafriendofFredsandinsomecasesthisconstructioncansignificantlyalterthemeaningaphotoofSamanthaversusaphotoofSamanthas.ThistypeofpossessivetendstobeusedonlywithpersonalnamesornounsrelatingtolivingpeopleanditisnotgenerallyusedwithstandardnounsorwhenreferringtoanorganisationorinstitutionadoorofthehouseandafriendofDurhamCathedral.ItisvirtuallyimpossiblebasedontherulesandexceptionsforformingpossessivestopredictwhetheraplacenamethatfeaturesafinalsononeormoreofitswordsshoulduseanapostropheornotbecausethereisconsiderableinconsistencyOffasDykeAllSoulsCollegeStJamessPalaceandJohnsHopkinsUniversitysotheauthorsusageshouldbefollowedasmuchaspossibleandalittleresearchmaybenecessarytodecidetroublesomecases.Itisalsodifficulttodetermineexactlywhenapossessiveasopposedtoanattributiveadjectiveshouldbeusedespeciallyinpluralformsandinmanycaseseitherisequallyacceptableemployee 181CHAPTER4lunchroomoremployeeslunchroomtaxpayersassociationortaxpayersassociationbuttheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.285recommendsdispensingwiththeapostropheonlyinpropernamesoftencorporatenamesorwherethereisclearlynopossessivemeaning.Gerundsormoreaccuratelythenounsorpronounsthatprecedethemalsopresentparticularlythornyproblemswhenitcomestodecidinguponwhetherapossessiveshouldbeusedornot.InsomecasesthepossessivedefinitelyshouldnotbeusedinStudentssigningupforEnglish101shouldlineupatDeskAthestudentsareundoubtedlythesubjectsbutanapostropheonthatwordwouldimplythatsigningupwasandwouldbeincorrect.InothercasesapossessiveisclearlynecessaryinDebrasdrivingthecarresultedinanaccidentforinstanceitsDebrasdrivingthatisthesubjectofthesentencesohernameactsasanadjectiveandshouldtakethepossessiveformwhichhappensinthiscasetosoundnatural.InHeworriedabouthisdaughtersgoingtothepartyalonehoweverthepluralpossessivedaughtersmightseemawkwardorevenpedantictosomeauthorsandreaderstodayandtheapostrophewilloftenbeomitted.Yetthepossessiveformisalsocorrectitemphasisesthegoingastheobjectofthefathersworrywhiledaughterswithouttheapostropheemphasisesthedaughtersastheobjectofworry.ImaginingthesentencewiththenouninquestionreplacedbytherelevantpronouncanbehelpfulinmyfirsttwoexamplesaboveforinstanceTheirinsteadofStudentsandSheinsteadofDebrasmakenonsenseofthesentencesconfirmingthelackofapossessiveinthefirstcaseandtheneedforoneinthesecondbuttheirgoingfordaughtersgoingandthemgoingfordaughtersgoingbothsoundequallyascorrectasthenounsthemselves.Insuchhazycasesitsbesttofollowtheauthorsusageunlessyoudecidebasedoncontentelsewhereinthearticlethatthe 182CHAPTER4emphasisreallyshouldbedifferentandtheneedforconsistencycanalsobehelpfuliftheauthortendstouseapossessiveinsuchconstructionsapossessivemightalsobeappropriateinthosefewinstanceswhenheorshedoesnotbutdobesuretoinformtheauthorofthechangeparticularlyifitmightalterthemeaningofasentence.AnitalicisedwordorphraseortitlecanbemadepossessivebyaddinganapostropheandansoranapostrophealoneasappropriatebuttheadditionshouldremaininregularromanfonttheHobbitsplotandhisjoiedevivrespoweroverthecrowdwasamazing.AtitleofanarticlechapterorpoemforinstanceenclosedinquotationmarkssingleordoubleshouldnotbemadeintoapossessivesoinstancesofthisawkwardusageshouldberewordedwithofinsteadofthepossessivetheimageryoftheOdetoAutumn.TranspositionmayalsobenecessaryiftheauthorhasusedapossessiveinanawkwardwayinaparentheticalphraseshewasElsiehissisterscatorshewasElsiehissisterscatisbetterasshewashissisterElsiescatorthecatbelongedtoElsiehissister.AdjustmentsofthiskindcaninfactbemadeinmanycaseswhereapossessiveformlooksorsoundsawkwardtheRogerseshouseisagoodexampleandtheyarealsoagoodsolutionwhenpossessivesespeciallyintheirpluralformareoverusedorusedonerightaftertheothertheparticipantsfathersoccupationsforinstanceisclearerandsmootherastheoccupationsoftheparticipantsfathers.Besurehowevertoincludeaquickcommentexplainingwhyyouvemadeanychangesthatweredesirablebutnotstrictlynecessary.ApostrophesarenotusedtoformthepluralofnounsofanykindwordsnamescompoundsphrasesabbreviationsornumberssothepluralisgirlsnotgirlstheJonesesnottheJoness 183CHAPTER4sisters-in-lawnotsisters-in-lawNGOsnotNGOsandthe1960snotthe1960s.Apostrophesoftenslipintopluralshoweversokeepaneyeopenforthiserrorandbesurethatthepluralandnotthepossessivewasinfactintendedbeforechangingit.OnlytoincreaseclaritywhenlettersparticularlylowercasenumeralsorothersymbolsarediscussedasobjectscananapostrophebeusedthethreeRsasanalternativetothethreeRstherewerefour12sinthelistinsteadoftherewerefour12sinthelistandespeciallycrossthetsanddottheiswhichismuchclearerthancrossthetsanddottheis.Iftheapostrophesarenotusedinconstructionssimilartothislastexamplethelettersbutnotthesaftereachshouldbesetineitheritalicfontcrossthetsanddottheisorquotationmarkscrossthetsanddottheistodistinguishthemfromthesurroundingtext.Unlessitisunclearwhatevermethodanauthorhaschosenforpresentingsuchmaterialshouldberetainedimprovedandusedforallsimilarinstancesthroughoutapaper.Thefinaluseofapostrophesistoformcontractionsinwhichcertainlettersareomittedandrepresentedinsteadbyanapostrophebutmanyoftheseshouldnotbeusedintherunningtextofformalscholarlyprose.Itsforitisitswithoutanapostropheisthepossessivepronounseeaboveshesforshehaswellforwewilldontfordonotandshouldntforshouldnotaregoodexamplesofinformalcontractionsthatarebestavoidedinanacademicorscientificpaperandthesameprincipleappliestothoseofasimilarnaturethatareformedirregularlysuchaswontforwillnotandaintforamnotorthataresoalteredfromtheiroriginalformthatnoapostrophecouldbeappropriatelyplacedgonnaforgoingtoforinstanceandwannaforwantto.Suchcontractionscanbeusedwhenquotinginformalspeechofcourseandothersthatarebasicallyarchaicsuchasthevryoertisandlearnd 184CHAPTER4setinitalicsheretoshowtheformsclearlycanstillbeusedwhenquotingearlysourcesorpoetrywhilestillothersareacceptableforwideruserocknrollforinstancedosanddontsbosunandmaam.Astheaboveexamplesdemonstratethespacingaroundapostrophesusedtoformcontractionsmatchesthespacingthatwouldhavebeenusedaroundthelettersreplacednospacesappeararoundtheapostropheiftheletterisomittedmid-wordbutaspaceshouldappearbeforetheapostropheifaninitialletterisomittedYestistrueandaftertheapostropheifafinalletterisomittedthancientone.ApostrophesindicatinganinitialomittedlettercanbetrickybecauseWordandotherwordprocessingprogramsautomaticallychangeanintendedapostropheatthebeginningofawordintoanopeningsinglequotationmarkwhichcurlsintheoppositedirectionsodowatchforthatproblemandifyouencountertroubleschangingthemarktypetwoapostrophesinarowandthesecondwillbetherightshapesimplyretainitanddeletethefirstone.Finallynoapostropheisnecessarytoindicatethemissinglettersincontractionsnowacceptedaswordsintheirownrightsuchasphonefortelephonefluforinfluenzaandsixtiesfornineteensixties.Questionmarks.Thequestionmarkisusedfortwomainpurposestomarkquestionsqueriesorinterrogativespeechandtosuggestuncertaintyordisbelief.ItappearsinthepositionofafullstopattheendofadirectquestionwhetherornotthequestionactuallyformsacompletesentenceDoesshealwayswalkherdogatnineoclockandWhatarebothvalidquestionsthoughWhatdidyousayorsomethingofthesortispreferableinformalwritingtothesingle-wordformofthesecond.Additionalclosingpunctuationsuchasafullstopisnotnecessaryanddoublequestionmarkstoexpressconfusionshouldnotbeusedinformalprose.Generallyaquestionmarkisfollowedbyacapitalletterandanew 185CHAPTER4sentencebutifaquestionisembeddedinasentencethesentencecancontinuewithalowercaseletterafterthequestionmarkSheaskedhimhowwillthisaffectmypositionbuthedidnotanswerWordwillwanttochangethelowercasebinbutintoacapitalindeeditwillwanttochangeanyletterafteraquestionmarkandotherterminalpunctuationintoacapitalsowatchforthat.IfthequestionrepresentsdirectspeechandinsomestylesdirectthoughtaswellitshouldappearinquotationmarkssingleordoubleandusuallybeginswithacapitalHeshoutedWhereareyouandWhereareyouhewondered.AquestionmarkisnotusedforindirectquestionswhicharesimplyblendedintosentencesSheaskedwhynoonehadputonthesoupandTheywantedtoknowwhenandwhyithadhappened.AquestionmarkisalsonotusedinmostphrasesthatareframedasquestionsthroughcourtesybutareinfactnotquiterealquestionsMightIaskyoutoopenthedoorandWilleveryonepleaserise.BothofthesewouldnormallyclosewithafullstopthoughasNewHartsRulessuggestsRitter2005Section4.8.1aquestionmarkcanseemmorepolitethanafullpointagoodthingtorememberwhenproofreadingletterstoeditors.WhenaquestionmarkisusedinconjunctionwithquotationmarksparenthesesorsquarebracketsitshouldappearinsidethequotationmarksparenthesesorbracketsonlyifitisactuallypartofthequotedorparentheticalmaterialItmaybeJunebutitfrozelastnightcanyoubelieveitbutWhatdidhemeanwhenhesaidWithoutpatientsthehospitalwouldrunmuchmoresmoothlyAquestionmarkcanbeusedimmediatelybeforeorafterawordphrasedateorotherelementofasentencelistortabletoexpressuncertaintyordoubtTheblizzardhitVictoriainDecemberof1996justaswewereleavingtownifthequestionmarkwouldinterfere 186CHAPTER4withorconfusethepunctuationofthesentenceencloseitinparenthesesin1996.InbothcasesnospaceshouldappearbetweenthequestionmarkandthematerialqueriedandthesameisthecaseifaquestionmarkisusedinthiswaytoexpresssarcasmorproduceahumorouseffectMyfriendsdidntbothertolookformebeforetheyleftsoIspentthenightintheforestalone.TherearemorecomplexwaysofusingspacingwithquestionmarkstoindicatewhichelementsofasentenceordateorclaimareindoubtRitter2005Section4.8.2discussesthesebuttheyareoftendifficultforreaderstodecipherandafarbetterpolicyforscholarlywritingonethatcanbesuggestedtoanauthoristoexplainexactlywhattheuncertaintyisandorwhyitexistsTheblizzardhitVictoriainDecemberIthinkitwas1996justaswewereleavingtown.Whenquestionmarksareusedwithdatesmuchaswhenanabbreviationforcircaisusedwithdatestheyshouldbecarefullyplacedandtheauthorsmeaningisclearestifthedatesarenotelidedin14251437thefirstdateisclearlyindoubtin14251437itisobviouslytheseconddatethatisindoubtin14251437bothdatesareindoubtbutexactlywhatismeantby142537isunclear.RemembertoothataquestionmarkusedwithadatetendstoindicatethatthedatesuggestedisprobablesoitsmeaningisslightlydifferentfromthatofcircaonwhichseeSection5.2.2below.Exclamationmarks.ExclamationmarksorexclamationpointsinAmericanEnglishareusedasclosingpunctuationafteremphaticstatementsdirectcommandsemotionalinterjectionsoroutcriesandironiccommentsOhnoIforgottolockthedoorandWatchoutLikeaquestionmarkanexclamationmarkperformsthefunctionofafullstopsonoadditionalpunctuationisnecessarytocloseasentenceandusingmultipleexclamationmarkstointensifyastatementisnotadvisableinformalscholarlyprose.An 187CHAPTER4exclamationmarkcanhaveitsplaceinparentheseswithinanacademicorscientificarticletoemphasiseorcommentinasmallwayonsurprisingorstrikingresultsorbehavioursinwhichcaseitshouldappearupagainsttherelevantinformationjustasaparentheticalquestionmarkexpressinguncertaintydoesThemensscoreswereaveragebutthewomensscoresallexceeded35thehighestscoreeverachievedbeforethistrial.Suchuseindeedalluseofexclamationmarksshouldbesparinghoweverbecauseoverusewilldiminishtheeffectandproduceanunprofessionalappearance.UndernocircumstancesshouldanexclamationmarkbeaddedeveninsquarebracketstoaquotationtoexpresseditorialprotestoramusementbecausethiscancomeacrossascondescendingandcontemptuousChicagoManualofStyle2003p.260theuseoftheLatinadverbsicispreferableseeSection5.3.3below.AnexclamationmarkisgenerallyusedinsteadofaquestionmarkwhenaquestionissoemphaticthatitismoreexclamationthanquestionHowcouldyousaysuchathingandWillheneverlearnAnexclamationmarkhasdifferentmeaningsinmathematicswhereitisafactorialsignandcomputingwhereitisadelimitersymbolsodobealerttothesespecialisedapplicationsifyouarereadingpapersinthoseareasseeRitter2005Chapter14formoreinformation.FinallyasisthecasewithaquestionmarkanexclamationmarkusedinconjunctionwithquotationmarksparenthesesorsquarebracketsshouldappearinsidethequotationmarksparenthesesorbracketsonlyifitisactuallypartofthequotedorparentheticalmaterialIdiscoveredmuchtomychagrinthatIwasbeingpaidafractionofwhatotherwriterswereearningandIinvitedmymother-in-lawtoteaandsheactuallyhadtheaudacitytosayItdoesntlooklikeyouwashedthecupsdear 188CHAPTER4Brackets.TherearefourmainkindsofbracketsarecalledparenthesesorsometimesparensandmorecasuallyroundbracketsarereferredtoassquarebracketsinBritishEnglishbutusuallysimplyasbracketsinAmericanEnglishareformallycalledbracesandlessformallycurlybracketsandareknownasanglebrackets.Eachtypeofbracketshasparticularthoughoccasionallyoverlappingfunctionsinacademicandscientificprosewithsomeofthosefunctionshighlyspecialisedincertaindisciplinessuchasmathematicscomputingandmusic.InthisdiscussionIfocusontheusesofbracketsthattendtoapplytowritinginallormostscholarlyareasfordetailedadviceonthespecialiseduseofbracketsinparticulardisciplinesseeforexamplethechaptersonsciencemathematicscomputinglawmusicandothersubjectsinNewHartsRulesRitter2005Chapters1314ButchersCopy-EditingButcheretal.2006Chapter13Sections14.214.3andtheChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter14.Generallyspeakingparenthesessingularparenthesisbutsincetheyrealmostalwaysusedinpairsthepluralistheusualformtendtobeusedmorefrequentlythanotherbracketsinmostformalandprofessionalwriting.IntherunningtextofscholarlyprosetheyareusedtoencloseparentheticalmaterialspecificallyinformationthatislesscloselyrelatedtotherestofthesentenceormoreparentheticaltoitthanwhatisimpliedwhencommasenrulesoremrulesareusedtosetoffparentheticalmaterialIdiscoveredmuchtomychagrinthatIwasbeingpaidafractionofwhatotherwriterswereearningandTheoriginaltextofthepoemwrittenadecadeearlierdidnotcontainthisstanza.Glossesjoiedevivrejoyoflivingorviceversajoyoflivingjoiedevivreandtranslationscanbeenclosedinthemthewordsweredamihicastitatemgivemechastity.Whentitlesaretranslatedinthiswayanyspecialfontusedonthetitleshouldbeusedforthetranslation 189CHAPTER4aswellDeCivitateDeiOntheCityofGodandnoticethataccordingtotheprinciplesforitalicfontseeSection4.2.2abovetheparenthesescouldbeineitheritalicsorromanfontaslongasbothparenthesesinasetusethesamefontandsimilarsituationsaretreatedinthesamewaythroughoutthepaper.SometimessquarebracketsareusedinsteadofparenthesestoenclosetitletranslationsparticularlyinthefullbibliographicalreferencesforsomestylesDeCivitateDeiOntheCityofGod.Parenthesesarealsousedforotheraspectsoffullbibliographicalreferencesdatespublicationinformationandissuenumbersforinstanceinbothreferencelistsandnotesandtheyareusedinrunningtexttoenclosein-textreferencesinauthordatesystemsSmith2009TaylorSmith2014p.67.Noticethatwhenseparatingreferencesandothermaincomponentsofinformationstatisticaldataforexampleinparenthesessemicolonsaregenerallyusedforthementhescoreswere24and55forthewomen23and54thoughcommasareacceptableforseparatingitemsthatareshortanddonotcontaininternalpunctuationscoresof24and55forthemen23and54forthewomen.Commasareusedforinstancetoseparatedifferentpublicationsbythesameauthorinauthordatein-textreferencesSmith200920112012TaylorSmith2014andtoseparatein-textnumericalreferences125710whichsometimesappearinparenthesesformoreinformationontheuseofparenthesesinreferencesseeChapter3above.ParenthesesarealsousedwhenintroducinganddefiningnonstandardabbreviationsofallkindspatientswhodidnotreceivechemotherapynonchemogroupTimesLiterarySupplementTLSandWorldHealthOrganizationWHOandtheordercanbereversedAPAAmericanPsychologicalAssociationwhichishandyforreferencingbecausetheabbreviationcanbecitedinthetextandthenbeforethefullversion 190CHAPTER4inthereferencelistseeSection3.1.2aboveandSection5.2.2below.VariantsexplanationsalternativespellingsandothersupplementaryinformationareoftenenclosedinparenthesesforexampleprogrammebutprogramforcomputersoftwarecanbeproblematicinBritishEnglishandtheFindernManuscriptlatefifteenthcenturywaswrittenbyfemaleaswellasmalescribes.InlistsparenthesesoftensurrounditemnumbersparticularlyifthelistispresentedinrunningtextFourcolourswereconsideredinthetest1red2pastelgreen3deeppurpleand4brightblue.Someauthorswilltendtouseonlyaclosingparenthesisaftereachofthenumbers12andsoonbutapairofclosedparenthesesisclearerandpreferablesodowatchforandcorrectthis.Liststablesandfigurescancontainavarietyofinformationinparentheseswhichareparticularlyeffectiveforseparatingdifferentmeasurementsandkindsofdataevenwithinthenarrowcolumnofatable26men50inonerowand26women50inthenext.Mostparentheticalmaterialneedstocorrespondwithwhathasimmediatelyprecededitintermsofbothcontentandgrammarso26participantsand50ofthesampleareequivalentintheexampleaboveandsuchequivalenceshouldexistbetweenwhatprecedestheparenthesesandwhatispresentedwithintheminothercasesaswellforinstancetheaboveexamplesofparentheticalclausestranslationsetc.nottheaboveexamplestheonefortranslationandinthatyear1492notinthatyear14921497.InBritishEnglishparenthesescanbeusedwithinparentheseswhennecessary26men50and26women50butinAmericanEnglishsquarebracketsaregenerallyusedwithinparentheses26men50and26women50andthenparentheseswithinthoseinteriorsquarebracketsifnecessaryandsoonfortheorderofbracketsinmathematicsseeButcheretal.2006pp.319320andRitter2005Section14.6.5ontheconventionsforusing 191CHAPTER4parenthesesandsquarebracketsinlegalcontextsseeRitter2005Chapter13.WhicheverformofEnglishtheauthorisusinghoweveritsusuallybesttokeepdoublebracketingtoaminimumespeciallyinrunningtextandgeneralcontextswhererewordingorrearrangingparentheticalmaterialtoavoiddoublebracketingisoftenapreferableoption.Similarlyitsbestifparenthesesdonotappearbacktobackandiftheymustthatthisbekepttoaminimumtheprincipleappliestoallbracketsingeneralcontextsbutsomespecialisedusesmayrequirethisformat.Punctuationinrelationtoparenthesesoftenrequiressomeadjustmentinanacademicorscientificpaperbuttherulesarestraightforward.Parenthesescanbeusedwithindashesenrulesandemrulesanddasheswithinparenthesesthreevegetablestomatoescarrotsandbeansscarletrunnerswereplantedorthreevegetablestomatoesbeansscarletrunnersandcarrotswereplanted.AcommaorsemicolonshouldprecedeanopeningparenthesisonlyintheenumerationofalistFourcolourswereconsideredinthetest1red2pastelgreen3deeppurpleand4brightblueandneithershouldeverprecedeaclosingparenthesis.ThecorrectwaytopunctuateifthesentencerequiresacommaattheendofasetofparenthesesisAftercrawlingthroughthewindowonthethirdfloorsheunlockedthedoornotAftercrawlingthroughthewindowonthethirdfloorsheunlockedthedoorandnoticethatAftercrawlingthroughthewindowonthethirdfloorsheunlockedthedoorisalsoincorrectandmeanssomethingverydifferent.Inthiscasethecommaproperlybelongstothesurroundingsentencenottheparentheticalmaterialsoshouldappearaftertheclosingparenthesis.Fullstopsaswellasquestionandexclamationmarksseeabovebehaveinthesamewayfollowingtheclosingparenthesisiftheybelongtothesentenceasawholeandprecedingtheclosingparenthesisonlyiftheybelong 192CHAPTER4particularlyorsolelytotheparentheticalmaterialforexampleIinvitedmymother-in-lawtoteaandsheactuallyhadtheaudacitytosaysomethinginsultingItdoesntlooklikeyouwashedthecupsdearbutItmaybeJunebutitfrozelastnightcanyoubelieveit.Inthecaseofafullstopbelongingtotheparentheticalmaterialmeansthattheparentheticalmaterialformsacompletesentenceandtheparentheticalconstructionasawholeisseparatefromothersentencesasthefinalsentenceofthisparagraphis.Forthisreasononeormorefullsentenceswithinparenthesesshouldneverbeembeddedinanothersentence.AsmentionedabovesquarebracketsareusedinAmericanEnglishforparentheticalmaterialthatisalreadyenclosedinparenthesesbuttheirmorecommonuseinbothBritishandAmericanEnglishistoenclosematerialthattheauthoraddstoaquotationwhethertomakethequotationworkinhisorherownproseortocorrectcommentontranslateorotherwiseexplainaspectsofthequotationtheauthordescribesthecharacterasjoiedevivrejoyoflivingpersonifiedbutthisdoesnotprovetruefurtherexamplesanddiscussioncanbefoundinSection5.3.3below.SquarebracketsareusuallynotusedaroundellipsesthatareaddedtoindicateomissionsfromquotationsandtheycertainlyarentnecessarybutinrarecasesguidelineswillrequestthisusageWhanthatAprill...hathpercedinsteadofthemoreusualWhanthatAprill...hathpercedKolveOlson1989GeneralPrologue1-2ontheuseofellipsesinquotationsseeSection5.3.3below.Punctuationrulesinrelationtosquarebracketsinrunningtextareexactlyastheyareforparenthesesseeabove.Squarebracketscanbeusedtoenclosenumericalin-textreferencesandoccasionallytoencloseparentheticalauthordatereferencesandinfullbibliographicalreferencestheyareusedtosurroundtranslatedtitlesandtoenclosepublicationinformationauthornamesdates 193CHAPTER4etc.thatdoesnotactuallyappearinthesourceitselfbutisknownfromelsewhereseeSections3.1.13.1.3above.Morespecialisedaretheusesofbracesandanglebracketswhichhaveparticularmeaningsandusesinmathematicscomputingmusiceconomicsprosodyetymologytextualeditingandtypesettingfordetailedhelpthereferenceslistedinthefirstparagraphonbracketsabovewillprovidegoodstartingplaces.Theslashalsoknownasasolidusslantstrokevirguleobliquediagonalshillingmarkorforwardslashtodistinguishitfromabackwardorbackslashhasanumberofspecificusesinformalprose.TheseincludeExpressingalternativesinwhichtheslashbasicallymeansorandorhishersheonoffandthelike.InmostinstancesnospacesappeararoundtheslashinsuchsituationsbutifoneorbothofthealternativesisacompoundparticularlyunhyphenatedspacesmaybehelpfulWorldWarIISecondWorldWarbutsister-in-lawbrother-in-law.Sometimesanenruletakestheplaceofaslashaneitherorsituation.RepresentingthewordandasinaJekyllHydepersonalitybutthisisrare.NospacesareusedaroundtheslashbutasageneralrulesuchcasesarebetterwiththewordandinsteadoftheslashaJekyllandHydepersonality.Specifyingayearthatextendsovermorethanonecalendaryear201314sometimesincombinationwithanenruleinarangeofyears201011201314.Nospacesareusedaroundtheslash.Punctuatingall-numeraldates060514althoughthisformatshouldbeavoidedinformalprosebecauseitcanbeconfusingseethediscussionofdatesinSection4.3.1above.Theshorthand911isfrequentlyusedtorefertotheattackontheWorldTradeCenterTowersinNewYorkon11September2001 194CHAPTER4butitsgoodtousethefulldateatleastonfirstmention.Nospacesareusedaroundtheslash.Punctuatingcertainabbreviationssuchasthecommonlyusednameaningnotapplicablecomeaningcareof247meaning24hoursaday7daysaweekandkmhrmeaningkilometresperhour.Nospacesareusedaroundtheslash.Indicatingratioswiththemeaningoftheslashbeingper250daykilometreshourandrainfallyear.Heretoothereshouldbenospacesaroundtheslash.Representingafractionbarmeaningdividedbyforexample25and34.Nospacesappeararoundtheslash.IndicatingtheoriginallinebreakswhenlinesofquotedpoetryarerunoninasinglelineinproseWhanthatAprillwithhisshouressoteThedroghteofMarchehathpercedtotheroteKolveOlson1989GeneralPrologue1-2.Insomestylesaverticallineisusedforthispurposeinstead.Whicheverisusedaspaceshouldappearoneithersideofit.SeparatingelementsinURLswherebothsingleanddoubleslashesareusedwithoutspacesforexamplehttpwww.proof-reading-service.com.Bothforwardandbackwardslashesarealsousedinotheraspectsofcomputing. 195CHAPTER5Chapter5LanguageWritingStyleLogicalStructureandQuotationsWhatMustShouldandShouldntBeDoneItisalwaysdifficulttodecidejusthowmuchshouldbealteredwhenproofreadingandeditinganacademicorscientificarticleandthisisparticularlysowhenitcomestothelanguagewritingstylelogicalstructureandquotationsusedinapaper.Obviouserrorsandinconsistenciesmisleadingobscureorambiguouslanguagemisusedwordsandineffectivestructuresandincorrectorincorrectlyformattedquotationsmustbeaddressedwhethertheyarecorrectedbytheproofreaderorbroughttotheauthorsattentionbutpreciselywhenandwhereanauthorsusageisincorrectortrulyproblematiccanbenotoriouslytrickytodetermine.Personalpreferencesdisciplineconventionsandjournalguidelinescanplayanimportantpartalongwiththegeneralrulesofwordusegrammarargumentationanddocumentation.Aneditingpolicythatattemptstobringtheauthorsstyleandpatternsintocompleteaccordwithwhattheproofreadermightuseinasimilarsituationorwhattheproofreadermightconsiderperfectstyleandstructuretendstoleadtolarge-scalechangesthatcaninsomeinstancesrenderthearticleunrecognisabletotheauthorandresultinadissatisfiedorevenoffendedcustomer.AproofreadercancertainlydrawtheauthorsattentiontoaspectsofasentenceparagraphorarticlethatdontnecessarilyrequirecorrectionbutcouldbeimprovediftheauthorsowishesbuttheproofreaderisnottheauthorandshouldnotcreateanimprovedversionofsomeoneelsesworkButcheretal. 196CHAPTER52006p.32.InsteadthefocusshouldbeonremovingobstaclesbetweenthereaderandwhattheauthorwantstoconveyButcheretal.2006p.1whileobservingtherulesandconventionsofformalscholarlywritingandifrelevanttherequirementsofspecificguidelinesaswell.5.1CorrectingandImprovingStyleandStructureSoundLanguageandLogicEveryauthorconstructssentencesparagraphsandhisorherargumentinuniquewaysthatmustberespectedandretainedunlesstheyaremanifestlyincorrectorotherwiseproblematic.ApolicythatthereforekeepsanychangestotheauthorsstyletoneandlogictoanabsoluteminimumisasoundoneyettheproofreaderisthereadersadvocateaswellastheauthorsambassadorButcheretal.2006p.1sotheperspectiveofpotentialreadersmustbeconsidered.Itmaybethatthearticleisdestinedforaspecialisedjournalinwhichcaseyoucanassumegreaterfamiliaritywithcertainapproachesandterminologyoritmaybethatyouhavenoideawhotheauthorenvisionsashisorherreadersbuteitherwayyoudonothavetobeanexpertineverysubjectandaspecialistineverydisciplineyouencounterinyourwork.Infactalthoughknowledgeandexperienceofscholarlywritingbothgenerallyandspecificallyarealwayshelpfulalittledistancefromthetopicyourereadingaboutcanbejustwhatsrequiredwhendecidingwhetheranauthorwhoisnecessarilydeeplyentrenchedinhisorhersubjectanditsspecialisedmethodsandterminologyisactuallycommunicatingeffectivelywithreaders.JournalsvaryofcoursebutmanyguidelinesspecifythatarticlesandespeciallyabstractsshouldbewrittenforageneralaudienceasmuchasforspecialistsandEnglishthatisclearcorrectandable 197CHAPTER5toexpresscomplexspecialisedideastogeneralreaderswillalsobeaccessibletospecialists.SuchaccomplishedEnglishisinvirtuallyallcasespreferabletojargon-richprosethatexcludescertainreaderssometimestheveryreaderstheauthorishopingtoreach.ItgoeswithoutsayingthattheproofreaderwhowishestohelpascholarlyauthorachievehisorherownidealsofcommunicationmustbeanincrediblyobjectivecriticalandsensitivereaderaswellasanexpertintheEnglishlanguageanditspresentationinformalwriting.Thisisfarfromaneasycombinationofqualitiestoachieveandmaintainhoweverandwhenthelanguageandwritingstyleinapaperareparticularlyproblematiclitteringanarticlewithmanyerrorsambiguitiesandawkwardconstructionsorwhentheauthorsapproachandperspectiveareverydifferentfromwhattheproofreadermightdoandthinkifheorshewerewritingupthesamesortofresearchtheeffectcanbebothoverwhelminganddistracting.Somesentenceswillrequirerepeatedreadingandmanycorrectionsbothsmallandlargesopatiencecombinedwithpersistentattentionisanecessaryvirtueandsotooisflexibility.ArticlesargumentsandguidelinesdifferaswidelyasthewritingstylesofauthorsandthechallengesanddifficultiestheyfacewhilecomposingformalEnglishprosesoitisimpossibletopredictordiscussallthepotentialproblemsthatmightbeencounteredinthelanguageandstructureofaparticulararticlemuchmustbelefttotheindividualproofreadersexpertiseexperienceandjudgement.InthefollowingsubsectionsyouwillthereforenotfindatriedandtruemethodfordealingwiththeseaspectsofanacademicorscientificpaperbutadviceonhowtoproceedwithregardtospecificissuesthattendtoproveparticularlytroublesomeformanyauthorsespeciallythosewhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglish. 1985.1.1WordUseSyntaxandSentenceStructureThefocushereisonwordsandtheirorderinEnglishsentencesbutasentencemustalsobeproperlypunctuatedtofunctioneffectivelysoSection4.4aboveonvariousmarksofpunctuationandtheiruseshouldbeusedinconjunctionwiththissectionwhencorrectingandimprovinganauthorssentencestofacilitateclearcommunication.SomemattersofpunctuationwillbedecidedbyauthorpreferencesorjournalguidelinesbecausethereismorethanonecorrectapproachusingaserialcommaornotforinstanceseeSection4.4.1aboveinsuchcasesoneacceptablemethodshouldbechosenandusedconsistently.WithotheraspectsofpunctuationhowevertherearerightandwrongwaysofproceedingacommaspliceshouldalwaysbeavoidedforexampleseeSection4.4.1aboveinthosecasescorrectionswillbeneededandiftheproblemoccursfrequentlytheauthorshouldbeofferedabriefcommentexplainingwhythechangeshavebeenmade.Inallcasespunctuationshouldenhanceandclarifythestructurelanguageandmeaningoftheauthorssentences.Worduseisnotonlyahugetopicalmosteverythinginanarticleisawordafterallbutlikepunctuationtheuseofindividualwordscanbenotonlycorrectorincorrectbutalsoamatterofchoiceonthepartoftheauthorsometimeswiththeinstructionsprovidedinjournalguidelinesplayingapartaswell.ItisrareforjournalstospecifywhichwordsshouldorshouldnotbeusedinanarticlebeyondcommentingonabbreviationsandtechnicalorspecialisedterminologyseeSection5.2belowbutoccasionallyajournalwillindicatethatdehumanisinglanguageforinstancebeavoided.Thisreferstotheauthorialpracticeofleavingoutwordsthatassertthepresenceorroleofhumanbeingsinanykindofstudy.MostcommonisthetendencyforpatientsorparticipantssufferingfromaparticulardiseaseorailmenttobereducedthroughakindofshorthandtothediseaseorCHAPTER5 199ailmentcancerandnoncancerforinstanceinsteadofcancerandnoncancerpatientsorpeoplewithandwithoutcancer.Whilethissortoflanguageissometimesnecessarytoconveyresultsefficientlyespeciallyintabularformitshouldbeavoidedasmuchaspossibleandcertainlynotusedwhenfirstintroducingthepeopleinvolvedinastudy.Somejournalsevenfrownupontheuseofsubjectsinsteadofindividualsorpeoplebecauseitistooimpersonalandmostwillwanteveniftheirguidelinesdonotmentiontheageofparticipantsandotherpeopletobereferredtoaccuratelybyforinstancenotcallingyoungwomenandyoungmengirlsandboyswhichasageneralruleshouldbeusedonlyofchildren12yearsofageandunder.Itisthereforeessentialtochecktheguidelinesforanyrestrictionsofthiskindtokeepthecontextinmindandtousecommonsensewhileconsideringeachterm.Forexamplewhilereferringtoa25-year-oldmanasaboyisinappropriateinmostcasesreferringtoa40-year-oldprostituteasaworkinggirlmaynotbeifthatiswhattheprostitutecallsherselfandtheauthorusestheterminquotationsandorwithappropriateexplanation.Appropriateworduseofthiskindisamatterofachievingprecisionandavoidingbiasifforinstanceanauthorreferstoa25-year-oldmanasamanbutreferstoa25-year-oldwomanasagirlorusesthemasculinepronounhewhenwritingofdoctorsandthefemininepronounshewhenwritingofnursesitmaynotbeadeliberatedistinctionbutitwillcomeacrossasbothinaccurateandbiassed.BiascanoccurintermsofracenationalitysexgenderclasseducationageandsoonandcaninvolvearbitrarilyprioritisingonegroupofpeopleoveranotherorstereotypinganyparticulargroupofpeopleseetheadviceonavoidingbiasofvariouskindsinthePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.7377.SomereadersmightextendthistohistoricaltimesandtheirpeopletheideaforexamplethatanyonetimeisbetterthananotherorthecommonCHAPTER5 200notionthatpeoplenowaremoreintelligentormoreimaginativethanpeoplewereinthepastaswellastoanimalsandothercreatureswiththeprioritisationofpeopleoveranimalsortheenvironmentforinstancesmackingofanthropocentrism.Althoughtheguidelinesofveryfewacademicandscientificjournalswillprovidespecificadviceonthecarefuluseoflanguageinthiswayitishardtoimaginearespectablescholarlyjournalinthetwenty-firstcenturythatwillnotwantorexpectauthorstouseunbiassedlanguagethatisinclusiveratherthanexclusive.AvoidinggenderbiasisparticularlyimportantinwesternincludingEnglish-speakingsocietiesofthetwenty-firstcenturysobesuretokeepacloseeyeonanymentionsofmenorwomenaloneifmenaretheonlysubjectsofthestudyorifmenalonearerelevantforaparticularstatementallvotersweremenforinstancebeforeacertaindatewhichdiffersfromcountrytocountryusingmenaloneisappropriatebutifbothmenandwomenareinvolvedinthestudyforexampleorwhenreferringtovotersingeneralinBritainofthetwenty-firstcenturybothshouldbementionedoranalternativethatimpliesbothsuchaspeopleindividualsorparticipantsshouldbeused.Thegender-specificpronounsheandshemustbeusedwithequalcare.ThematterisstraightforwardwhenspeakingofamaleorfemalepersonbutwhenapersonsingularisusedmoregenerallyorhypotheticallyproblemscanarisebecauseheonceusedinmostsituationsofthissortWhenapersonislearningtodriveherequiresqualifiedsupervisionisnolongeracceptableasaneutralpronounandalthoughsheisnowusedasneutralbysomeauthorsitreallyjustinvertsratherthansolvingtheproblem.Abetterchoiceisthesingularpronounonewhichissuitablyneutralbutcansoundartificialorheorsheshewhichcoversthenecessarygroundbutcancomeacrossasawkwardespeciallyifusedfrequently.CHAPTER5 201Somewritersuncomfortablewithusingoneheorsheorsheaswellashimorherandhisorherwouldarguethattheyalongwiththemandtheirisanacceptablenon-gender-specificsubstituteforthesingularformsWhenapersonislearningtodrivetheyrequirequalifiedsupervision.Howevertheythemandtheirarepluralsotheyarenotreallyappropriateorcorrectwithreferencetosingularnounsandusingthemasthoughtheyarecanquicklybecomeextremelyconfusing.SoifapersonanindividualorsomethingofthesortisusedasingularpronounisneededandbothheandshearerequiredtorenderthelanguageinclusiveWhenapersonislearningtodriveheorsheorsherequiresqualifiedsupervision.OnlyifthenounispluralisthepluralpronounappropriateWhenpeoplearelearningtodrivetheyrequirequalifiedsupervision.Ifaproblemariseswiththeinappropriateuseofgender-specificpronounsonlyonceorafewtimesinapaperthesentencesaffectedcaninmostcasesbeadjustedtoavoidthebiasbyaddingthemissingpronounorrewordingtousethepluralasIdointheexampleabovebutifgender-specificoranybiassedlanguageisamajororrecurrentprobleminanarticleitisbettertoalerttheauthorindicatingspecificexamplesifnoteveryinstanceandallowhimorhertodotherewordingformoreassistancewithsexistandnonsexistlanguageseeMillerSwift1995.Pronounscanbeproblematicinanumberofotherwaysaswell.OnthetopicofreferringtopeopleappropriatelyforinstanceahumanbeingpersonparticipantintervieweemothermanteenagerorgirlisneveranitwhichasaneuterpronounshouldbeusedofinanimateobjectsWhenthescaleisfinisheditwillmeasuredepressionandisappropriatewhenreferringtocountrieswhichlikeshipsarenolongerreferredtowithfemininepronounsastheyoncewereCanadashouldreconsideritsapproachtothetarsandsbutnotwhenreferringtopeopleWhenthegirltookthetestshewasCHAPTER5 202feelingmoredepressedthanusual.RelativepronounsshouldbeusedsimilarlywithwhowhomandwhosenotthatrepresentingpeoplethemanwhodidthatortheparticipantwhoscoredhighestnotthemanthatdidthatortheparticipantthatscoredhighestalthoughconverselythepossessiveformwhosecanbeusedofinanimateobjectsaswellasofpeopleThebookwhosecoverwasbrightgreenwhichisoftenpreferredtoThebookofwhichthecoverwasbrightgreen.Theessentialpointisthatpronounsitwhohesheandothersshouldbeusedwiththeutmostaccuracysothattherelationshipbetweeneachpronounanditsantecedentisclearlyestablishedleavingnodoubtaboutthemeaningofthepronoun.ForexampleinThefatherthoughthisdaughterwaslost.ShewasactuallyatafriendshouseShecanonlyrefertothedaughtersotheresnoriskofconfusion.HoweverinThegirllostherolddogGoldie.ShewasactuallyatafriendshousetheantecedentofSheisnotclear.SincethegirlisthesubjectofthefirstsentencethereadermightexpectShetorefertothegirlbutitcouldalsorefertothefemaledogGoldiesoconfusioniscreatedaboutwhatisactuallybeingsaidandthusabouttheimplicationsofthetext.IsthedogsafeatafriendshouseordidthegirllosethedogatafriendshouseandthusinalessfamiliarandpotentiallymoredangerouslandscapeIstherecontinuingcauseforworryornotTheambiguitypossibleeveninsosimpleasentencehintsatthekindofconfusionthatcanresultifalongandcomplexsentencereportinganddiscussingdetailedresultsandconclusionsopenswithItandcontainsacouplemoreinstancesofthatpronounaswellasatheyandathem.SuchasentencemaynotonlyfailtocommunicatetheauthorsmeaningclearlytotheintendedaudienceitmayalsopreventaseasonedprofessionalproofreaderfamiliarwiththesubjectfromunderstandingexactlywhattheauthoristryingtosayespeciallyifthatauthorisalsodealingwiththechallengeofwritinginalanguageCHAPTER5 203nothisorherownandperhapsusedoneitwhenreferringtoapluralantecedentandtheyforasingularonebymistake.Inmostcasesfivepronounsaretoomanyforasentenceinanycasebutwhetheranauthorusesmanypronounsoronlyoneinasentenceitisvitalthattheantecedentforeachcanbeidentifiedreadilyandwithcertainty.Ifsomeambiguityexiststhemeaningwoulddefinitelybeclearerwereanounornounphraseusedinsteadandifyouresureyouknowwhattheauthormeansusingtherelevantnouncanbeagoodsolutionthoughitsgoodtootoinformtheauthorthatyouvedonesojustincaseyourewrong.Ifhoweveryoureunsurewhattheauthormeansbycertainpronounsorunsurewhatwordsmightbeappropriateintheirplaceyoullneedtocommentontheneedfordefinitionandlettheauthorprovidetherelevantnounsornounphrases.Becausepronounsareoftenusedtorefertolargeorabstractideaswhicharedifficulttodefineorexplainbutwouldbefarclearerandmoreeffectiveiftheyweredefinedorexplainedhighlightingtheconfusioncanhelptheauthorimprovehisorherwritingandargumentinmajoraswellasminorways.Asageneralrulethepronounyouyourinthegenitivecaseshouldbeavoidedaltogetherinacademicandscientificprose.Inquotationssuchasthosefromthedirectspeechofinterviewsyouisfinebecauseitsnotexpressedintheauthorsownvoicebutthereadershouldnotbeaddresseddirectlyinthiswayinscholarlyprose.ThisisrarelyaproblemforauthorsbutsinceIusethesecond-personvoiceinthisHandbooktofacilitateconciseexpressionoftheadviceImofferingIthoughtIbestmentionthediscrepancy.Weusandourintheothercasescanbeusedhoweverbutitsuseshouldbespecificratherthangeneralorfictional.ThisistosaythatwecanandshouldbeusedifitrefersspecificallytotheauthorsofthearticleandIisequallyacceptableforasingleauthor.InfactIorwewhenusedspecificallyandwithdiscretionisoftenpreferableCHAPTER5 204tothird-personcircumlocutionssuchasthepresentauthorandthepresentinvestigators.WeobservedthatWesawintheresultsthatandWediscoveredthatwiththeWeapplyingtotheauthorsineachcaseallreportresultsinaclearandstraightforwardmannerandthuspresenttheevidencenecessarytoadvanceanacademicorscientificargument.ThetwoIandweshouldnotbemixedhoweverapapereitherhasoneormorethanoneauthorsoifIappearsinoneparagraphandweinthenextoneofthemneedscommentorcorrection.Wecanalsobeusedsuccessfullythoughwithcarewhenreferringtoresearchersorpractitionersasagroupsuchasweethnographerswepalaeographersorweassurgeonsespeciallyifthepaperrelatestomethodologytheaccumulatedknowledgeofadisciplineandortheself-awarenessoreducationofthegroupconcerned.Weusedinageneralorfictionalsensethatimplicitlyincludesthereadersoreventhewholeofhumanityisbestavoidedinscholarlywritinghowever.YouwillnodoubtfindphrasesusedinthiswaysuchasWecanobservethatWeseehereWenowknowthatandWehumanbeingsdonotinthescholarlyarticlesyoureadandwhilethiskindofvoicemaybeacceptableforwritinginsomeareasandmediathoughpersonallyIqueryitwithacommentinanyformalwritingitisgenerallyspeakingnotafeatureofacademicandscientificpapersanditsavoidanceisoneofthecharacteristicsofaprofessionalscholarlyvoice.Theuseofthefictionalwecanbeparticularlyproblematicwhenitisusedtoincludethereaderinassumptionsthathavenotbeenprovedwithresultsorestablishedwithacademicargumentationanditcanbeadelicatematterexplainingtotheauthorwheretheproblemliesespeciallyifthewenowknowstanceisusedasitsometimesisasasubstitutefortruescholarlyargumentation.ItendtofocusonthepronounweinsuchinstancesthoughhelpfuladvicebeyondthatcancertainlybeofferedCHAPTER5 205inextremecasesaslongasitisofferedinakind-spiritedway.Ifweoryouforthatmatterisusedinappropriatelyonceoronlyafewtimesandespeciallyifitseemsconfusedwiththetruewevoiceoftheauthorsitcanberewordedifitisstraightforwardandtheauthorinformedifitisusedfrequentlytheauthorshouldbeencouragedtomakethenecessarychanges.Ifontheotherhandthegeneralwevoiceisusedrepeatedlyoriscentraltothetoneorapproachoftheauthorasintheaddressgivenatasocietymeetingortheonlinemissionstatementofacompanydonotchangeitinsuchcasesitisassumedthattheauthorhasadoptedthevoicedeliberatelythoughtheacceptabilityofthevoiceinconventionalscholarlyprosecancertainlybebroughttotheauthorsattentionifyoususpectthevoiceinappropriateforthecontextandbelievetheadvicewouldbehelpful.TheuseofmostEnglishnounsisrelativelystraightforwardbutspellingandwordchoicecansometimesbeanissueforauthorswhosefirstlanguageisnotEnglish.Itisusuallyquiteeasytodealwithsuchproblemsifawordismisspelledbutthewordintendedisobviousthespellingcansimplybecorrectedifawordismisusedbutthewordwantedisobviouscontactforcontextforexampleimplementationforinterventionandsoonthecorrectwordcanbeprovidedalongwithaquickcommentacknowledgingthechangeiftheworduseddoesntworkandyourenotsurewhatwordwasintendedyoullneedtobringtheproblemtotheauthorsattentionandperhapssuggestpossibilitiesforhimorhertoconsider.WatchfornounsthataretoovaguetoexpresstheauthorsexactmeaningtoreadersinourcountryinourregionandinourhospitalsareclassicexamplesofinstancesinwhichtheauthorknowswhatheorsheistalkingaboutbutthereadercannotunlessthecountryorregionorlocationofthosehospitalsisspecifiedspecificlanguageisalsobestfordatesseeSection4.3.1above.ConverselytheauthorslanguageshouldnotbesospecifictoonecountryorregionCHAPTER5 206thatitsmeaningwillnotbeunderstoodbyinternationalreaderscurrencyeducationalsystemsandlocalentertainmentaregoodexamplesoftopicsforwhichtheauthorshouldprovidenotonlyspecificinformationrelevanttotheoriginallocalitybutalsocarefulenoughexplanationsofthosespecificsthattheywillmakesensetoreadersinothercountriesandregions.Thereshouldalwaysbeagreementbetweennounsandtheverbsusedwiththemwhichinmostcasesisobvioussingularnounsshouldbeusedwiththesingularformsofverbsthedogbarksandtheresearcherinvestigatesandpluralnounswiththepluralformsofverbsthedogsbarkandtheresearchersinvestigate.Howevercertainnounspresentgreaterchallenges.Pluralnounsthatseemlikesingularnounsdatamediacriteriaetc.forinstanceshouldtakeapluralverbthecriteriaforinclusionwerenotthecriteriaforinclusionwasalthoughdatacanalternativelybeusedasasingularnounthedatawereorthedatawas.Thisistosaythatdatacanbetreatedasacollectiveorgroupnouninsteadofasanormalpluralnouninwhichcasetheimportantpointistoensurethattheauthortreatsthenounasasingularwheneveritisused.WithcollectivenounsingeneralitsessentialthateachnounisconsistentlytreatedaseitherasingularorapluralideallythroughoutanarticleandcertainlywithinasinglesentencebutthiscanberathertrickybecausesuchnounstendtobetreatedasbothsingularandpluralincasualconversationsothereisatendencytobeinconsistentforexampleinThecommitteewasestablishedin2006sincethentheyhavegrownrapidlytheyinthesecondpartofthesentenceshouldbeittoagreewiththesingularwasinthefirstpart.AlsocomplicatedisthefactthatthedecisiontouseasingularorpluralverbwithacollectivenouncandependonwhetherthenounreferstothegroupasaunitsingularortoitsmembersasindividualspluralandalsoonwhetherBritishorAmericanEnglishisusedinAmericanEnglishwhenthegroupisCHAPTER5 207consideredasaunitasingularverbisusuallyusedtheteamisplayingexceptionallywellbutinBritishEnglishcollectivenounstendtousepluralverbstheteamareplayingexceptionallywell.ThecollectivenounscoupleandpairareusuallyusedaspluralswhentheyrefertopeopleThecoupleweremarriedinJunebutcollectivenounsofquantitysuchasnumberpercentageandproportiontendtotakeasingularverbwhenadefinitearticleprecedesthenounandapluralverbwhenanindefinitearticleprecedesthenounThenumberofpeopleshoppingatbigboxstoresisincreasingbutAnumberofpeoplearenowshoppingatbigboxstores.CertainotherwordsphrasesandconstructionscancauseparticularproblemsespeciallyforthoseauthorswhosenativelanguageisnotEnglish.Bothtakesapluralverbboththedogandthecatwereintheyardwhereasneithertakesasingularverbandsodoesaneither...norconstructionneitherthedognorthecatwasintheyardorshouldnotbeusedinsteadofnorinthisfinalconstruction.Neithereitherandbothshouldbecorrectlypositionedinasentencetoachievebalanceandavoidrepetitionthephrasingshouldbethatworkforneitherhimnorherorthatneitherworkforhimnorsuithernotthatneitherworkforhimnorherandthatworkforbothhimandherorthatbothworkforhimandsuithernotthatbothworkforhimandher.OnlycanbeplacedinthepositioninwhichitsoundsbestinasentenceunlessthereisapossibilityofambiguityorconfusioninwhichcaseitshouldbecarefullyplacedtoclarifythemeaningforexampleVegetablegardensonlywateredonSundayscouldmeanOnlyvegetablegardensarewateredonSundaysorVegetablegardensarewateredbutnotweededonSundaysorVegetablegardensarewateredonSundaysonlyexamplesadaptedfromButcheretal.2006p.164.Attimesitwillbeuncertainwhatexactlytheauthorintendedsoinsuchcasestheauthorshouldbeinformedoftheambiguityandallowedtomakethenecessarychanges.OnlyCHAPTER5 208canalsobeproblematicwhenusednottomeanexclusivelybuttorefertoasmallnumberorpercentagejust39orassmallas39ismoreaccuratethanandpreferabletoonly39.Theopeningofsentencesinformalprosecanpresentproblemsbecausethewordingshouldbebothpreciseandcompleteandcertainelementsshouldnotbeusedatthebeginningofasentence.Numeralsforinstanceshouldbeavoidedsoanynumberatthebeginningofasentenceshouldbewrittenoutinwordsunlessthatwouldbecumbersomee.g.145786inwhichcasethesentenceshouldberewordedtoavoidusingthenumberatthebeginningseeSection4.3.1above.CertainabbreviationsshouldalsobeavoidedatthebeginningofsentencesseeSection5.2.2.below.Asageneralrulesentencesshouldnotbeginwithconjunctionssuchasandorbutandsoalthoughtheoccasionallapseinthisregardeveninformalwritingisusuallytoleratedaslongasthesentencedoesntbeginaparagraphthemeaningisclearandtherhythmoftheproseiseffective.Asentenceandespeciallyaparagraphnormallyshouldnotstartwithapronounsuchasthisthatortheyeveniftheantecedentisclearfromwhathasgonebeforebutparticularlyiftheantecedentisambiguous.InsteadthesubjectshouldbeclearlystatedasanounornounphrasetoavoidconfusionsothepronounsIorweareacceptableatthebeginningofasentenceorparagraphbecausetherecannodoubtifthesepronounsareusedonlywhentheyshouldbeaboutthemeaning.WhenadescriptivephraseisusedatthebeginningofasentenceitappliestoeverythingthatfollowsuntilthesubjectchangesorisrestatedsointhesentenceIn1876hewrotehisfirstpoemandturnedhishandtoprosein1880thedate1876appliesincorrectlytoturnedaswellascorrectlytowroteandrewordingisnecessaryeitherHewrotehisfirstpoemin1876andturnedhishandtoprosein1880orIn1876hewrotehisfirstpoemandin1880heturnedhishandtoprosewouldwork.CHAPTER5 209Danglingparticiplesoftenappearatthebeginningofsentencesaswellthoughtheycanturnupanywhereinasentence.AdanglingparticipleoccurswhenaparticipleorparticipialphraseisfollowedbyawordotherthanthesubjectitmodifiesasitisinRisingtooverthreehundredfeetinheightwestaredinaweatthegiantsequoiasandHavingfoundtherightfoodatlasttheelderlycatwasfed.ItiscleartoathinkingreaderfamiliarwithEnglishthatthegiantsequoiasrisetooverthreehundredfeetandthatthepersonfeedingthecatistheonewhofoundtherightfoodbutthesentencesdontactuallysaythesethingstheysaythatwerisetooverthreehundredfeetandtheelderlycatwastheonewhofoundtherightfoodbecausethosearethesubjectsthatappearimmediatelyaftertheparticipialphrases.SuchsentencesshouldberewordedbytheproofreaderifpossibleandbytheauthorifnotsothattheirsyntaxreflectstherealitiesreportedWestaredinaweatthegiantsequoiasthatrosetooverthreehundredfeetinheightandHavingfoundtherightfoodatlastshefedtheelderlycat.Dependentclausesalsopresentproblemsinsomepapersparticularlywhentheyaremistakenlyusedasindependentclausesorfullsentences.WhileadependentclausecontainsasubjectandaverbasthisclausedoesitdoesnotexpressacompletethoughtinsteaditoftenbeginswithadependentmarkerwordsuchasafterwhenifbecausealthoughandothersthatleavesthereaderwaitingfortherestofthethoughtAfterwereachedtheforestandAlthoughmanypeoplerespondedinitially.ForthisreasonadependentclausecannotbeacompletesentencebutshouldbeeitherfollowedbyacommaandanindependentclausethatdoescompletethethoughtorprecededbyanindependentclauseandacommaAlthoughmanypeoplerespondedinitiallyonlynineparticipantsshowedupforthefirsttrialorOnlynineparticipantsshowedupforthefirsttrialalthoughmanypeoplerespondedinitially.CHAPTER5 210Adjectivesandadverbscanbeproblematicduetooverusewithlongstringsofadjectivesparticularlycommoninsomepapers.WhileaproofreadershouldntgenerallyremoveexcessadjectivesheorsheshouldensurethattheyarepunctuatedcorrectlyandinkeepingwiththeauthorsusualpatternsofpunctuationseeSection4.4.1aboveandacommentsuggestingthatfewermightbebetterespeciallyifalargenumberofadjectivalnounsareusedcanbehelpful.AdverbsareespeciallyproblematicwhentheysplittheinfinitiveformsofEnglishverbs.InmostlanguagestheinfinitiveofaverbisasinglewordthefamousLatinphrasevenividiviciIcameIsawIconqueredforinstancebecomesvenireviderevincereusingtheinfinitiveforms.InEnglishhowevertheinfinitivesofverbsareformedthroughtheadditionoftotocometoseetoconquerandthetwoelementsoftheinfinitivetoandconquershouldnosoonerbeseparatedfromeachotherinformalwritingthanshouldthe-ireor-ereendingbeseparatedfromthestemofoneoftheLatininfinitives.InfinitivesareusuallysplitbyanadverbaddedbetweenthetwopartsoftheverbasinStarTreksfamoustoboldlygoandsuchsplitinfinitivessometimessoundentirelynaturalbecausetheytendtobeuseddailyinspeechandinformalwrittencommunications.SomeeditorsarguethatasplitinfinitiveisthelesseroftwoevilsandrecommendcorrectingtheproblemonlyifitcanbedonewithoutdistortingthesentenceButcheretal.2006p.165.ThereareinstancesinwhichthisisgoodadvicethoughinsuchcasesIwouldinformtheauthorofthesplitinfinitivesothatheorshecanmakethedecisionaboutit.Thereisconsiderabledifferenceofopinionhoweverregardingexactlywhatdistortsasentenceandsomemightarguethatsplitinfinitivesaresimplyincorrectgrammarandthereforenotanaspectofformalacademicorscientificprose.SincearticlescanbereturnedforrevisionbyjournaleditorsduetothepresenceofsplitinfinitivesitisalwaysagoodideatorewordthemwheneverpossiblereplacingtosuccessfullypublishCHAPTER5 211withtopublishsuccessfullyforinstance.Rewordingsplitinfinitiveswillnodoubtprovechallengingattimesandincertaininstancestheadverboradverbialphrasemayhavetobeabandonedaltogethertomakeasentenceworkeffectivelyiftheadverbreallyisntnecessaryitcanbedeletedbutasalwaysexplainingthesituationsotheauthorwillunderstandwhyyouvedonewhatyouvedoneorifyouvedecidednottomakethechangewhyheorshemightwanttoremovetheadverbisessential.Thecorrectuseofverbtensespresentperfectpluperfectetc.canbeproblematicinsomearticles.Thenuancesofthevarioustensescommunicatedifferenttemporalmessagesandthetemporalmessageofeachverbshouldaccuratelyreflecttherealityreportedbeconsistentwithotherverbsexpressingsimilartemporalmessagesandchangeaccordingtothenatureofthecontent.Theproblemiscomplicatedinscholarlyprosebecausereferringaccuratelyandeffectivelytotheideasandresultsfoundinsourcescanbechallenging.AsageneralrulemuchofwhatissaidinpreviousscholarshipcanbereferredtointhepresenttenseforexampleJones1985arguesthatandaccordingtoJohnson2010theseresultsare.HoweverwhenstudiesdoneatdifferenttimesarecomparedorcontrastedthetensewillneedtobevariedJones1985arguedperfectthattheproblemcouldnotbeovercomebutJohnson2010shedspresentnewlightonthesituation.OftenusingacompoundformwithhasorhaveismoreeffectivethanasimplepastorperfecttensewhenspeakingofscholarlytrendsordevelopmentsforinstanceSincethe1990stherehavebeenseveralstudiesonthetopic.HoweverstudiesthatarealreadypublishedwereinfactconductedinthepastsotheperfecttensetoocanbecorrectlyusedwhenreferringtosourcesandtheirauthorsforexampleThestudybyJones1985exploredthemigrationhabitsofmonarchbutterfliesandJohnson2010investigatedtheCHAPTER5 212phenomenonbymakingextensiveuseoftheworkofJones1985.Thesamesensitivitytotemporalrealityshouldbeappliednotjusttothediscussionofsourcesbuttothewholeofapaperandiftheauthorhappenstouseverbsinthesubjunctivecorrectandimprovethatusageifnecessarybutdonotasageneralruleintroducethesubjunctivetenseevenifyouthinkitbetterwordingifyouwanttoalerttheauthortothepossibilityacommentsuggestingthechangeissufficient.Anotherconcernarisesfromthedifferencesbetweenthepassiveandactivevoices.IntheactivevoiceasubjectisclearlystatedandtheverbisactiveWeinvestigatedtheeffectofchemotherapyonrecoverytimeamongcancerpatients.InthepassivevoicetheobjectbecomesthesubjectandtheverbispassiveTheeffectofchemotherapyonrecoverytimeamongcancerpatientswasinvestigated.BothsentencesarecorrectEnglishbutbecausethepassivevoicedoesnotnamethepeopledoingtheinvestigatingitfailstoconveywithprecisionwhodidtheresearchtheauthorsofthepresentarticleaspartofthecurrentstudyforinstanceorathirdpartyorpartiesworkingatsomeothertimewhooughttobecited.Someacademicandscientificauthorswilldeliberatelyusethepassivevoiceinanabstractperhapsduetoamisconceptionthatthepassivevoiceisscholarlybutascholarlyvoiceisnevervagueasthepassivevoicecanbeandsomejournalguidelineswillactuallyaskthatthepassivevoicebeavoidedespeciallyinabstractswhereprecisionexpressedviaasfewwordsaspossibleisparticularlyimportant.Sodochecktheguidelinesforanyrestrictionsthatmightnecessitaterewordingandifanauthorusesthepassivevoiceextensivelypaycarefulattentiontowhatitactuallysaysanddoesnotsaypointoutwhereveritmaybeineffectiveorconfusingandperhapsadvisetheauthorofthebenefitsoftheactivevoice.ContractionsofverbsonwhichseeSection4.4.2aboveareneverCHAPTER5 213scholarlyexceptwhenaccuratelyquotingdirectspeechandsimilarinformaltextsoalthoughIusetheminthisbooktostrikeacasualtoneallinstancesofdidntshouldntwontandthelikeshouldbewrittenoutinfullinacademicandscientificarticlesdidnotshouldnotwillnotetc..Afinalimportantpointrelatestotheconsistencyandvariationofvocabularyinapaper.Whilevarietyisimportantforretainingthereadersinterestprecisionandconsistencyareessentialtoreportingresultsandpresentinganargumenteffectivelysoabalancemustbestruckwiththescalesalwaysslightlytippedinfavourofclearcommunication.Manyminorwordsinasentencecaneasilybechangedoreliminatedtocreatevarietyandavoidrepetitionwithoutalteringmeaningbutifanauthorvariesoreliminatestermsthatdefineaspectsandelementsoftheresearchmethodologyandargumentofapaperorreportthepreciseresultsoftestsandtrialsambiguityandmisinterpretationcanresult.InthecaseofcomparisonforinstancetheexactdetailsofeachsideofacomparisonorcontrastshouldbeclearlyoutlinedandasentencesuchasWecomparedthescoresthemenearnedinthesecondtrialwiththewomenisconfusingandsimplywrongthescoresearnedbythemenwerenodoubtcomparedwiththescoresearnedbythewomennotthewomenthemselvesandthewomensscoreswereprobablyobtainedinanumberedtrialaswellsothereaderneedsmoreherethantheauthorhasprovided.Astatementsuchaspinkshirtsweregivento12oftheboysbutbluetogirlsisalsoproblematicthereadereasilysuppliestheverbweregivenmissingfromthesecondhalfofthesentenceanditsalsofairlyclearthatbluestandsforblueshirtsbutheorshemaybewonderingtowhatgirlsDoestheauthormeanallofthegirlsinthestudyalthoughonly12oftheboysweregivenshirtsWerethereonly12girlsinthestudyClearlyfurtherexplanationisneededhereaswell.FinallythesametermsCHAPTER5 214anddefinitionsshouldbeusedforthesameconceptsorcategoriesthroughoutapaperespeciallywhenthoseconceptsandcategoriesarecentraltotheargumentforexampleifthestudygroupshavebeenintroducedassurgicalgroupnonsurgicalgroupandcontrolgroupthatterminologyshouldnotchangepartwaythroughthepaperandifquestionnairesarenumbered12and3theyshouldnotbereferredtowithoutthenumbersbecausethiscanincreasethepossibilityofunnecessaryconfusion.Inallsuchcasestheproofreadercancertainlyprovidemissinginformationorclarifythemeaningifthisisobviousfromthecontextandorotherdetailsinthepaperandthechangesrequiredarestraightforwardbutbluetogirlsintheaboveexampleforinstancecouldberewordedasbutblueonestothesamenumberofgirlsbutinmoreambiguoussubtleorcomplicatedsituationstheauthorshouldbenotifiedandlefttomakethenecessaryrevisionsonhisorherown.5.1.2ParagraphsandSectionsAccordingtoNewHartsRulesparagraphsareunitsofthoughtreflectingthedevelopmentoftheauthorsargumentandnoabsoluterulescontroltheirlengthRitter2005Section1.3.6.Paragraphwritingisthereforefarfromanexactsciencebutstrictlyspeakingthefirstsentenceshouldintroducethemainideaorunitofthoughttobediscussedintheparagraphthefollowingsentencesshoulddevelopthatideainanynumberofwaysandthelastsentenceshouldbringtheparagraphtoaneffectivecloseideallyinawaythatguidesthereaderontothenextparagraph.Theguidelinesofafewjournalswillrecommendhowlongparagraphsonparticularsubjectsorinparticularsectionsshouldbebutasageneralrulejournalguidelinesrarelyofferanyadviceabouthowtowritewell-structuredandfullydevelopedparagraphs.JournalsdontCHAPTER5 215neglectthisaspectofwritingintheirguidelinesbecausetheydontexpectithoweveritismorelikelythatthereisanunspokenassumptionthatanyauthorsubmittinghisorherwritingtoarespectedacademicorscientificjournalwillalreadyknowhowtowriteperfectparagraphs.Yetthisisntalwaysthecaseandparticularlyforthoseworkinginalanguagenottheirownorthosenewtothepublishinggamewritingeffectiveparagraphscanpresentsomethingofachallenge.Althoughtherearenoabsoluterulesregardingtheminimumlengthofaparagraphgenerallyspeakingasinglesentencedoesnotmakeaparagraph.Thisdoesntmeanthatasinglesentencecannotstandaloneinanarticlebutthatitshouldonlydosoifthecontextandinformationjustifysuchspecialtreatment.Theauthormayforinstancehaveanumberofsentenceswitheachofthemoutliningtheresultsofaparticulartestormethodofanalysisandeachofthemformattedasaseparateparagraph.Thisisntincorrectandtheoddjournalwillevenaskfordatatobepresentedinthiswaymostlikelybecausesuchastructureseparatesandthereforeclarifiestheinformation.Inadditionshortparagraphslikeshortsentencescanbeagreatdealmoreeffectivethanoverlylongonesbutsinceaparagraphshouldfocusondevelopinganideagatheringastringofsingle-sentenceparagraphsreportingresultsintoonelongerparagraphcaninmanycasesbeamoreeffectivemeansofdiscussingtheresultsoftheanalyticaltestsconductedinastudy.Theproofreaderiswisehowevernottochangetheparagraphstructureofanarticleunlesstheauthorsparagraphingseriouslycompromisesthelogicanddevelopmentoftheargumentorsimplydoesnotmeettherequirementsoftherelevantguidelinesandeveninsuchcasesanychangesshouldbeexplainedviacomments.Moreoftenthannotthebetterrouteistoalerttheauthortomoreeffectivepossibilitiesandleaveanyrestructuringtohimorher.CHAPTER5 216Thesameprincipleapplieswhentheparagraphsinapapermaybesomewhattoolongratherthantooshort.Themaximumlengthofaparagraphisindefiniteaswellbutmosteditorsandreaderswouldagreethataparagraphthatextendstotwopagesinlengthistoolong.Longparagraphsareoftenassociatedwithcomplexthoughtandinterrelatedideaswhichisexactlywhatonewantstoseeinanacademicorscientificarticlebutparagraphsthataretoolongoftenlosethereadersattentionbecausetheytendtomergeanddevelopanumberofideasinsteadofseparatingthemforclarityandsuchparagraphscanthereforelacktheappearanceoflogicalinterconnectionorcoherence.Sowhileevenaverylongparagraphcanbeeffectiveifintellectuallyappropriateandverycarefullywrittenthesamematerialbrokenintoshorterparagraphseachofwhichaddressesoneaspectofthelargerideaoriginallyexploredinalongerparagraphcancreateamoredefinedanduser-friendlystructureforcomplexideasandthusenhancetheprogressionoftheargument.Ifyoufeelthatchangesofthiskindarenecessarybesuretoconsiderthemcarefullyinrelationtotheoverallstructureofthearticleandinformtheauthorofanyadjustmentsyouchoosetomakerememberingthatsincesuchchangescanalterthebasicstructureofanarticlesargumentandtheauthorisultimatelyresponsibleforthatitisusuallybettertocommentinhelpfulwaysthantomakeunwelcomealterations.Theproofreadershouldalsobealerttotheeffectivenessofthetransitionsbetweenawritersparagraphs.Whentheauthorshiftstoadifferenttopicoradoptsadifferentperspectiveorfocusesonadifferentstudyasheorshebeginsanewparagraphthetransitionneedstobesmoothclearandexplainedwithprecision.SpecificdiscoursemarkersaremosteffectiveforindicatingachangeoftopicacomparisonorcontrastorashiftinfocusbuttherearemanywaystomakealterationsandprogressionsofthoughtapparenttoreadersCHAPTER5 217soonceagaintherearenodefiniterules.Ifatransitionseemsabruptawkwardcontradictoryillogicaloruncleartheproblemoftenstemsfromthefactthattheauthorhasnotrepeatedorintroducedthewordsnecessaryatthebeginningofanewparagraphtoconnectitlogicallytotheparagraphbeforeit.AsImentionedabovepronounssuchasthisandtheyshouldbeavoidedatthebeginningofanewparagrapheveniftheantecedentisobviousevenforexampleifthatantecedentappearsintheheadingimmediatelyabovetheparagraph.Whentheantecedentisnotobvioustheresultisnotonlypoorstylebutconfusionexactlywhenclarityismostnecessarytoadvancetheargument.Iftheproblemcanberesolvedsimplybysubstitutinganounornounphraseforthepronounsuchachangeisagoodideabutiftheresanydoubtabouttheauthorsprecisemeaningormoreextensivealterationsarerequiredtheauthorwillneedtoresolvetheproblemideallywithalittleadvicefromyou.Straightforwardchangestotheformattingofparagraphscaneasilybemadebytheproofreaderhowever.Paragraphsshouldforonebeclearlyseparatedsothatthereadercantellwhereoneendsandthenextbegins.Dependingonjournalguidelinesortheauthorspredominantusagethiscanbedoneeitherbyindentingthefirstlineofeachparagraphorbyprovidingalinespacebetweenparagraphsthelatterisusedinthisbookonemethodortheothershouldbeusedconsistentlythroughoutapaper.Inmostcasestheproofreaderwillonlyneedtomakeafewchangestoimprovetheconsistencyoftheauthorsmethodbutiftheauthorhasnotprovidedappropriateparagraphseparationatallorifthetwomeansofseparationarecombinedinaconfusingformatthealterationswillneedtobemoreextensiveandtheauthorshouldbeinformedofthepatternyouveintroduced.IfyoureunsureinsomecaseswhetheranewparagraphshouldbeginornotusetheShowHideformattingbuttoninWordsHomemenuitsthebuttonmarkedseeSection1.3.1aboveCHAPTER5 218tochecktheauthorsformattingandifthematterremainsunclearinformtheauthorinacommentoftheuncertaintyandthepossibleneedforseparation.Inmanystylesthebeginningofthefirstparagraphimmediatelyafteratitleorheadingisnotindentedbutallotherparagraphsaresobesuretocheckanydetailedinstructionsonformattingparagraphsprovidedbytherelevantguidelines.SometimesparagraphsarenumberedeitherbecausetheauthorisenumeratinglongpointsinanargumentinwhichcaseanumberedlistformatusingsimpleArabicnumeralsisappropriatefortheparagraphsconcernedorbecausetheyarenumberedaspartoftheoverallstructureofapaperinwhichcasethesectionsandsubsectionsareusuallynumberedaswellseebelowandtheparagraphstendtoserveasthelowestsectionlevelanduseamultiplenumbersystem1.2.11.2.2etc..Thelatterisparticularlyeffectiveintextbooksandothereducationalmaterialinwhichagreatdealofcross-referencingisdoneseeforinstancetheChicagoManualofStyle2003inwhicheachparagraphbearsadoublenumberforchapterandparagraphandguidelineswilloccasionallyrequireit.Althoughjournalsdifferintheamountofdetailtheyprovideabouthowapapershouldbedividedintosectionsandthekindoftitlesheadingsandsubheadingstheywantauthorstousemostjournalsoffersomeinstructionsonhowtoformattheseelements.Sinceheadingsingeneralareprobablythesinglemostimmediatelyvisibleaspectofapaperandstructuringapaperasajournalwouldhaveitisarecipeforsuccessfollowingthoseinstructionstotheletterisvitaleveniftheyprovideverylittledetail.IfontheotherhandtherelevantguidelinesareextremelyparticularanddetailedindicatingforinstancethedesiredpatternsofcapitalisationfontsizeandstyleandpunctuationtobeusedinheadingstheyshouldbefollowedpreciselyandconsistentlythejournalwouldnothavebotheredtoCHAPTER5 219supplysuchspecificinstructionswerethestylestheyindicatenotwantedandexpected.InmanycasestheheadingsthemselvesespeciallyforthefirstlevelwillbespecifiedintherelevantguidelinesBackgroundMethodologyResultsDiscussionandConclusionsforinstance.Ifthisisthecasetheseheadingsshouldbeusedanditisimportanttoensurethattheauthorhasnotomittedanyofthemainsectionsrequired.ThereisusuallyalittleroomforadjustmenttosuittheauthorsspecificneedshoweverbyaddingforinstanceacolonandabriefsubtitletodesignatedheadingsBackgroundPreviousTrialsandLiteratureorMethodologyParticipantsandQuestionnairesbutitisoftensaferiftheseextrawordsinsteadbecomesubheadingsorsecond-levelheadingswithParticipantsandQuestionnairesforexampleassubsectionswithinthemainmethodologysectionofapaper.Sinceveryfewjournalsrequireparticularwordingforheadingsbeneathfirst-levelheadingstherewillgenerallybemorescopeforflexibilityinsecond-levelandsubsequentheadings.Manyjournalsforinstancewillsimplylimitauthorstothreelevelsofheadingbeneaththetitleorthreelevelsofsubheadingbeneaththemainsectionsofanarticleandwithinsuchgeneralrulestherearemanywaystostructureanarticle.Ifthejournalguidelinesdonotgivespecificinstructionsortherearenoguidelinestofollowtheauthorssystemshouldbemaintainedandimproved.Ifthatsystemisjumbleditsagoodideatoimposesomeorderbasedontheauthorspredominantfontstylesandsizescapitalisationpunctuationnumberingandthelikebutifthereisnoorverylittleorderatallandnoguidelinesbywhichtoimposeoneofferingtheauthoracommentsuggestinghowmuchclearerhisorherargumentwouldbewerethepapergivenextrastructureviasectionssubsectionsandconsistentheadingstomarkthemiswisest.CHAPTER5 220Whetheryouareusingastyleguidejournalguidelinesortheauthorsownsystemtocheckandimprovethestructuraldivisionsinanacademicorscientificarticletherearetwomainmethodsofformattingheadingsthatwilleffectivelyandaccuratelydividethemainbodyofapaperintotopicsandlevels.ThefirstisperhapsthesimplestbecauseitdistinguisheslevelsofheadingssectionsbynumberingusuallyviaArabicnumeralsandworkswellforanynumberandvarietyoflevelswithinreasonofcoursewithmainsectionsgenerallybearingonenumber123etc.subsectionswithinthemainsectionsbearingtwo1.11.22.12.2etc.secondarysubsectionswithinthesubsectionsbearingthree1.1.11.1.2etc.andsoonseeAppendixII.AllsectionsshouldbenumberedinsuchasystemandallheadingsgenerallyappearinthesamepositionflushtotheleftmargininmostcasesbutcentredheadingsthoughlesscommoninnumberedthaninunnumberedsystemswouldworkasanalternativeinthenumberedheadingsforapaperonRomanticLiteratureIveincludedinAppendixIIIveindentedeachlevelslightlybutonlytohighlightthelevelsforreaders.Numberedheadingscanusepatternsofcapitalisationaswellassizeandstyleoffonttoindicateheadinglevelsbuttheydonotneedtodosobecauseeachheadingbearsauniquenumberandthenumberingsystemalonedoesalltheworkofdifferentiatinglevels.ForthisreasonthesizeandstyleoffontusedforthenumberedheadingsinapapertendtoremainconsistentandtomatchthoseofthefontusedinthemainbodyofthepapertheyalsotendtomatchthoseofthefontusedforheadingsinthepreliminaryandfinalmatterofthepaperalthoughthesesectionsofapaperarentusuallynumberedandtomatchthoseofthefontusedfortableheadingsandfigurecaptionsalthoughtablesandfiguresshouldbenumberedseparatelyseeSections6.16.2below.CHAPTER5 221Althoughalevelofheadingbearingafive-componentnumberasinSection3.2.2.2.1inAppendixIIisunusualandheadingswithmorethanfivedigitsarediscouragedinsomestyleguidesasimplenumericalsystemoforganisationcantheoreticallyaccommodatefiveandmorelevelsifnecessary.ThenumericaldistinctionoflevelsalsoallowstheauthortousethesameorverysimilarheadingsindifferentplacesasinthesectionsentitledPoetryandProseinbothSection3ResultsandSection4DiscussioninAppendixIIforinstanceandnumberedsectionscanbeextremelyeasytocheckforerrorsandinconsistencies.GiventhatnumberedheadingsareoftenautomaticallyformattedinWordhoweverspecialcareshouldbetakentoensurethatnoerrorshavebeenintroducedbytheprogramwhichcansometimesmissasectiondependingonhowtheinformationwasoriginallyenteredandmisnumberallheadingsfromthatpointon.Theproblemismagnifiedifthepaperfeaturesseverallevelsofsubheadingsandperhapsnumberedparagraphsaswellandevenmoresoifcrossreferencesareusedwithinthetextitselfsospecialcareshouldbetakenwhilecheckingandcorrectingthenumberinginallheadingsandcrossreferences.Afewerrorscanbeadjustedbytheproofreaderbutifthenumberingandcross-referencingistrulyconfusedtheauthorwillneedtorepairtheproblemsoacommentbrieflyexplainingtheconfusionwillberequired.PRSTipMostauthorsofarticlesdividedintonumberedsectionswilluseWordsautomaticnumberingfunctioniffornootherreasonthanbecauseWordimposesthissystemifsomethinglike1.or1.1followedbyaspaceandaheadingortitleistypedonanewline.Inmanycasesespeciallyforpaperswithasimplestructurefoursectionsforinstancewithoutsubsectionsthisfunctionwillprovesuccessfulandnotintroduceanyproblems.HoweverWordsautomaticnumberingCHAPTER5 222canmisssectionsifmaterialistypedindifferentlyresultinginallsubsequentsectionsbeingmisnumberedandthiscancreateconsiderabledisorderifthearticlehasseveralsectionsandsubsectionsofvariouslevels.Itcanthereforebeagoodideaespeciallyifyouhavetochangeanyofthesectionnumbersinapapersincethatwillthrowlaternumbersoutofsequencetorenumberallsectionsmanually.Todothisdeletetheoriginalnumberingthentypeaspaceontherelevantlinefollowedbytheheadingyoucanthenreturntothebeginningofthelineandaddthenumberandafullstopifnecessarybeforethespace.SinceitswhenyouaddaspaceorreturnafteranumberorthefullstopfollowingitthatWordsautomaticnumberingkicksinitwontapplyifyouentertheinformationinthiswayandthesamepracticecanbeusedtoavoidautomaticnumberinginnumberedlistsonwhichseeSection6.3below.Somestyleguidesandjournalguidelineswillcallforunnumberedsectionswhichmeansthatthelevelsofheadinginapapercannotbedifferentiatedvianumberssowillneedtobedistinguishedindifferentwayswhichbringsmetothesecondmainmethodofformattingheadings.InAPAstyleforexamplewhichisusedextensivelyinthesocialsciencesandotherfieldsofstudythepositionfontstyleandcapitalisationoftheheadingsiswhatdifferentiatesthesectionlevelsseethePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.6263sotoconformtoAPArequirementsfirst-levelheadingsarecentredonthepagesetinboldfontandusecapitalisationontheinitialletterandallmainwordsExpecttheUnexpectedTheResultsofRereadingSecond-levelheadingsinthissystemusethesameboldfontandcapitalisationbutappearflushagainsttheleftmarginTheLiteraryHistoryCHAPTER5 223Third-levelAPAheadingsareparagraphheadings.TheyappearatthebeginningofparagraphswhicharealwaysindentedinAPAstyleandtheytoouseboldfontincludingthefullstopthatappearsattheendofeachheadingbutonlytheinitialletterofthefirstwordandanypropernounsisuppercaseReceptionandinfluenceorwhowasreadingwhom.Fourth-levelheadingsarealsoparagraphheadingsinAPAstyleanduseonlyaninitialcapitalbutthefontfortheheadingandthefollowingstopshouldbebothboldanditalicThemostquotedandcopiedauthorsandtexts.Fifth-levelAPAheadingsappearatthebeginningofparagraphsaswellwiththesamepatternofcapitalisationasthethird-andfourth-levelheadingsbutthefontshouldbeitalicwithoutboldforbothwordsandthefinalstopAnexamplefromnatureSmithandDarwin.ThisAPAsystemisaseffectiveasanumberedsystemfordifferentiatingsectionlevelsbutatthispointtheauthorisforcedtoalternatebetweenbolditalicsanditalicssothepotentialforfurtherlevelsofheadingislimiteditishoweversuitableforalmostallarticleswhichgenerallydonotusemorethanfivelevelsofheading.NoticethattheintroductionofanarticleinAPAstyledoesnotbearaheadingandforheadingsinthepreliminaryandfinalmatterofapapertheformatforfirst-levelheadingsboldfontcentredandwithcapitalsonallmainwordstendstobeusedwhiletableheadingsandfigurecaptionsgenerallyappearflushleftinaregularromanfont.AdjustmentscanbemadetoastructuralsystemoftheAPAkindjustastheycanbetoanumberedsystemtobringitintolinewithguidelinesorrenderitmoreinternallyconsistentwithacommentexplainingthesituationforexamplePleasenotethattheguidelinesforauthorsyouveprovidedindicatethatsecond-levelheadingsshouldbeinboldfontsoIvechangedtheitalicfontyouhadonyourCHAPTER5 224second-levelheadingstobold.Againhoweverifconfusionanddisorderreignsoverthestructureofapapertheauthorshouldbetheonetoreorganisehisorherworksoakindlywordedcommentcanfacilitatethat.Anumberofotherimportantdetailsalsorequirecarefulattentionwhencheckingtitlesheadingsandsubheadings.Abbreviationsforinstanceshouldasageneralrulebeavoidedintitlesandheadingsandsomejournalguidelineswillspecificallyrequestthatthisbethecase.AbbreviationsintroducedanddefinedinheadingsshouldthereforebeintroducedanddefinedelsewhereusuallyinoneofthefirstsentencesfollowingaheadingandabbreviationsthataresimplyusedwithoutdefinitioninheadingsshouldbewrittenoutinfullinsteadwhethertheyhavealreadybeendefinedinthepaperornotformoreinformationonabbreviationsseeSection5.2.2below.Thephrasingoftitlesandheadingsshouldbenotonlycorrectconciseandinformativebutalsoandespeciallyinthecaseofthemaintitleengagingandnotoverlyburdenedwithtechnicalinformationorlanguagewhilealsoobservinganywordlimitsontitlesandheadingssetbytherelevantjournal.Punctuationshouldbeasconsistentaspossiblewithineachlevelandasappropriatethroughouttheheadingsandalthoughheadingsgenerallydonotclosewithafullstoporacolonunlesstheyareparagraphheadingsaquestionmarkorexclamationmarkcanusuallybeaddedattheendofanyheadingifrequired1.2.1WhereDidAlltheWomenGo.Fullstopsaregenerallyusedwithinnumberedheadingseitherafterasinglenumber2.ListeningforLostVoicesTheMethodologyorbetweenmultiplenumbers2.3.1ACaseStudyofCharlotteSmithPoetandNovelist.CapitalisationaswellasfontstylesizeandcolourshouldbeusedinwaysthatenhanceratherthanhinderorconfusethesystemofheadingsandwhilethewaysdevisedbyauthorstodifferentiatelevelscanbebothcreativeandvariousifanauthorusesCHAPTER5 225amethodthatislikelytoproveproblematicdifferentcoloursoffontforinstancetodistinguishoneheadinglevelfromanotherwhenthejournalinwhichtheauthorishopingtobepublisheddoesnotseemtopublishincolouritshouldbebroughttotheauthorsattentionsothatheorshecanincorporateanalternativemethodofdistinction.Authorsareusuallysosteepedintheirownworkthattheyasreadersdonotrequirethestructureandorganisationprovidedbytheheadingsandsubheadingsintheirownpaperssoitcanbedifficultforthemtobefullyawareofsubtleandpotentiallymisleadinginconsistenciesoralackofdifferencewhenitisinfactrequiredforaclearstructure.Forthereaderhowevertheconfusionisveryrealwhentwoheadingsinarowformattedinexactlythesamewayappearwithoutanytextbetweenthemoraheadingisencounteredthatisformattedinawaythatsimplydoesntseemtofitintothehierarchicalsystemestablishedbythepaper.ShouldtheseanomaliesbereadasdifferentkindsorlevelsofdivisionorhastheauthorsimplyneglectedtoformattheseheadingsappropriatelySuchinconsistenciesnotonlyintroduceglaringerrorsofthekindthateditorsareseekingtheyalsoforcethereadertoconjectureaboutthestructureofthepaperandcanevenpromotemisinterpretationofthework.Soitisessentialfortheproofreadertoensurethattheauthormaintainsthroughoutthepaperconsistentpatternsofdistinctionbetweenlevelsanduniformitywithinthemaswellasadheringtoageneralconsistencyofstylethroughoutallheadingsinapaper.Itisalsoimportantofcoursethatthematerialprovidedineachsectionorsubsectionofapaperaccuratelyreflectstheheadingthatappearsaboveitsoifthereareinstancesinwhichthisdoesnotseemtobethecaseacommentcaninformtheauthorofthepotentialproblem.ThecontentofanargumentisverymuchtheprovinceoftheauthorhoweverandwhiletheproofreadercancertainlysuggestpossibleimprovementsheorsheshouldnotmovematerialaroundeitherwithinorbetweensectionseventomakethemCHAPTER5 226complymorecompletelywiththestructuredevisedbytheauthororindicatedbytheguidelinesprovidedsuchstructuralchangesshouldbelefttotheauthorsdiscretion.5.2SpecialisedTerminologyJargonandAbbreviationsTheNeedforDefinition5.2.1Discipline-SpecificLanguageAllacademicsandscientistsusespecialisedordiscipline-specificterminologyattimesandcertainlysuchterminologycancommunicatewithaprecisionthatotherwordssimplycannotmanagesoitsuseisnecessaryinmanycases.Howeverspecialisedterminologycanalsobethemostexclusiveoflanguagesoitshouldbeusedwithgreatcare.Ifthepaperyoureproofreadingisintendedforaspecialisedjournalterminologyassociatedwiththeareaofspecialisationcanbeusedontheassumptionthattheeditorandreaderswillbefamiliarwithitbutevenspecialisedjournalsoftenrequestthatpapersbewritteninsuchawaythatamoregeneralaudiencewillalsobeabletounderstandatleastmostofthematerialpresented.Inparticularthetitleandabstractofapaperwhichareoftenthepartsofanarticlethatturnupinsearchesshouldbeasaccessibleaspossibleeventogeneralreaders.Asasoundandcommonscholarlypracticethenanytechnicalorspecialisedtermsusedinapapershouldbepresentedclearlyanddefinedatleastbrieflyonfirstuse.Itcanalsobehelpfuliftheauthorexplainstheideasbehindanyspecialisedterminologywithprecisionandasthoroughlyasnecessarytoallowreaderstounderstandthesignificanceofthatterminologyinrelationtothemethodologyofthestudyandtheargumentofthepaper.AnyabbreviationsofspecialisedterminologyshouldbeusedwiththesameprecisionasCHAPTER5 227theoriginaltermsandifalistortableisusedtodefinetermsoroutlinecategoriesofanykindspecialcareshouldbetakentoensurethatthosetermsandcategoriesappearintheexactsameformselsewhereinthepaperlistsareparticularlyeasytolocateandreaderswillreturntothemforhelpifanythingdoesproveconfusingsoitisessentialthatthetermsinalistprovideclarityandresolutioninrelationtothetermsusedinthepaperandthiscanonlybethecaseifthetermsanddefinitionsinbothplacescorrespondpreciselyseealsoSection6.3onlists.Althoughitcanbefrustratingtoproofreadapaperrichinspecialisedterminologyifyouarenotanexpertinthefieldandfindyourselfconfusedbysomeofthediscipline-specificlanguageusedthislimitationalsomeansthatyouareanincrediblyusefulreaderfortheauthor.Readersinhisorherfieldmaybeabletodeterminewhenandwherethatterminologyismisusedbutyouwillbeabletoprovideadviceaboutwhenandwheretheterminologyisfailingtocommunicatetheargumenttoawell-educatedexperiencedandcriticalgeneralreaderwithsomeknowledgeintheareaandthisisofgreatvaluetoanauthorespeciallyifheorsheisworkinginadisciplineinwhichalargenumberofspecialisedtermssymbolsabbreviationsandthelikeareabsolutelynecessary.IcannothopetoaddressthewiderangeofspecialisedtermsuniquesymbolsandspecificmethodsofpresentationusedinvariousdisciplinesbutdetailedtreatmentsandnumerousexamplesoftheuseoftheseinmathematicsmedicinebiologychemistryastronomygeologymusiclawclassicalstudiesandcomputingcanbefoundalongwithhelpfullistsofimportantinformationinNewHartsRulesRitter2005Chapters1314andButchersCopy-EditingButcheretal.2006Chapters1314.ConsultingtheseandorotherrelevantsourcesbeforequeryingissueswiththeauthorandcertainlybeforesuggestingormakinganychangestospecialisedmaterialwillinstilCHAPTER5 228self-confidenceinyourjudgementandwhatyoulearnwillalsomakeyourcommentsmorerelevantandyourrevisionsmoreappropriatethereforepromotingtheauthorsconfidenceinyouandyouradvice.Occasionallyyouwillfindyourselffacedwithanarticlethatusesagreatdealofspecialisedterminologyinashowymannerwithouttrulyorconsistentlypresentingavalidscholarlyargument.Oftenthisisduetotheauthorsuseoftechnicalortheoreticaltermsasasubstituteforexplainingideasclearlyanddevelopingalogicalargumentperhapsduetoamistakennotionthatterminologywilldotheworkonitsown.Inthestarkestdefinitionthisissimplyunsoundscholarshipandalthoughsomeauthorsmaythinkthatallthatobscureterminologywillappearlearnedmoreoftenitwillleadtoanassumptionamongreadersthattheauthordoesnotknowhowtoconstructatrueargumentandalsodoesnotfullyunderstandthelanguageheorsheisusing.Everyacademicorscientificpapermustpresentanddevelopanargumentnomatterhowsimpleorcomplexandthebestscholarlywritingdemonstratesnotjustaproficiencyinusingspecialisedterminologytocommunicatenotobfuscatebutalsoadeepunderstandingoftheideasbehindtheterminologyandanabilitytoexplainthoseideaseffectivelyforitsreaderswhiletakingthembothideasandreadersinnewdirections.Itisfarfromeasyhowevertoinformanauthorthathisorherargumentsimplyisntmeetingscholarlystandardsandexpectationsandaproofreaderreallyisntthepersontodosuchathinginanycaseacolleagueorsupervisorismuchmorequalified.Sofocussingontheuseofterminologyinyourcommentscanbeanexcellentwayofpinpointingavitalaspectoftheproblemwhiledelicatelyavoidingtheheartofthematterandahumbleadmissionofalackofexpertisecanleadintoahelpfulsuggestionthatthepaperalsobereadbyacolleagueorsupervisorbetterequippedtoassisttheauthorwithdiscipline-specificlanguage.CHAPTER5 229Closelyrelatedtospecialisedterminologyisthejargonpeculiartoaprofessionorfieldofstudy.Suchjargonoftenincludesspecialisedvocabularybutalsotendstouseconvolutedsyntaxorawkwardwordorderandcanprovetobeunintelligibleorverynearlysotoreaders.ForinstancealowyoungvoterturnoutelectionissimplypoorEnglishandnotnearlyaseffectiveforcommunicatingtheauthorsmeaningasanelectionwithalowturnoutofyoungvoters.Jargon-richlanguageisoftentheresultofauthorsbeingsoimmersedintheirrespectivefieldsofstudythattheyareunawareoftheirfailuretocommunicateclearlyinplainEnglisheventomanyintheirownfieldsbutsometimesitwouldseemthatitisusedmistakenlytocreateanimpressionoflearnednessormystique.Howeverthewordjargonisoftendefinedindictionariesasmeaninglesswritingvaguelanguageorgibberishandanacademicorscientificwritershouldhavenoneoftheseformsoflanguageinhisorhertext.Ifreadersdontunderstandwhattheyrereadinganyimpressionoftheauthorslearningthatmightbeachievedthroughtheuseofjargonanditseemsdoubtfultomethatjargoncouldhavethiseffectinanycasebecomesfrustratinginsteadofimpressiveandwhilemystiquecertainlyhasitsproperplaceitisnotinacarefullywrittenscholarlyarticle.Itisthereforeessentialtokeepyoureyesalerttosuchlanguageandiftheauthorusesalotofjargonurgehimorhertoreduceittoaminimumandensurethatitispresentedinasaccessibleamanneraspossiblewiththemeaningdefinedorexplainedonfirstuse.Anotherkindofjargonisthatusedforsocialnetworkingandotherinformalonlinecommunicationsuchabbreviatedandoftenincorrectlanguageisneverappropriateforaprofessionalscholarlypapersounlessanauthorisquotinganddiscussingsuchmaterialitshouldbestrictlyavoided.CHAPTER5 230PRSTipAlthoughwordsandphrasesfromforeignlanguagesarentexactlyspecialisedterminologytheydotendtobeusedindiscipline-specificwaysinbiologicalnomenclatureforexampleandtextualstudiesandshouldbetreatedinspecialways.ForoneunlessthewordsandphrasesarealreadynaturalisedintheEnglishlanguageoraredirectlyquotedandthusenclosedinquotationmarkstheyshouldappearinitalicfontseeSection4.2.2above.LikespecialisedterminologywordsandphrasesinforeignlanguagesshouldbedefinedifnotobvioussothatreaderswillbeabletofollowtheargumenteffectivelyandthismeanstranslatingthemintoEnglish.Translationscanvarysignificantlyfromthemostliteraltothemostcreativedependingonexactlywhattheauthorwantshisorherreaderstounderstandwhenthewordorphraseisusedandvarianttranslationsalongwithdiscussionsoftheirsignificancemayalsobeincludedinapaper.Onlyifatranslationseemscompletelywronginrelationtotheoriginalandthatdiscrepancyisnotexplainedbytheauthorshouldtheproofreadercommentonthematterandtheauthorsformatforpresentingtheoriginalwordsandphrasesinrelationtothetranslationsshouldalsoberetainedifatallpossible.Whentheforeignwordorphraseappearsinitalicsforinstancetheauthormaysetthetranslationeitherinparenthesessednolimodobutnotnoworinquotationmarkssednolimodomeaningbutnotnowandwhentheoriginalwordorphraseappearsinquotationmarksparenthesessednolimodobutnotnoworitalicssednolimodomeaningbutnotnowmightbeusedforthetranslation.Theapproachwillnecessarilydifferaccordingtoauthorpreferencesandintentionsaswellasindividualsituationsbutaslongastheauthorsmethodsareclearandeffectivetheycansimplybeimprovedwithaneyetoconsistencythroughoutthepaperasmuchasthatispossible.FormoredetailedadviceontheuseofavarietyCHAPTER5 231offoreignlanguagesoftenencounteredinscholarlywritinginEnglishseeRitter2005Chapter12Butcheretal.2006Section6.6Appendices57910andtheChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter10allofwhichcontainlistsofthealphabetsandspecialcharactersusedinparticularlanguages.5.2.2AbbreviatingEffectivelyMoststyleguidesandjournalguidelineswillhavesomethingtosayabouttheuseofabbreviationssoiftheauthorhasprovidedaspecificstyleorsetofguidelinestofollowchecktheinstructionscarefully.SomejournalsfrownuponabbreviationsandaskauthorstokeeptheirusetoabareminimumortouseonlystandardabbreviationssuchasSIunitsforweightsandmeasures.Otherswillexpectabbreviationstobeusedbutgiveveryspecificinstructionsaboutwhenandhowtheyshouldbeintroduceddefinedusedwithconsistencyandprovidedinanalphabeticallistaswellasinthetext.Manystyleguidesandguidelinesrecommendthatabbreviationsbeusedpredominantlyinparentheticalmaterialfootnotesandendnotesbibliographiesandreferenceliststablesfiguresandappendicesbutinthefieldsofscienceandtechnologyabbreviationstendtobeusedmoreextensivelyandmanyacademicandscientificarticlesuseabbreviationsofsomekindintherunningtextaswellasinancillarymaterial.VirtuallyallstyleguidesandguidelinesaskthatanybutthemostcommonabbreviationsagainSIunitsareagoodexampleAIDSisanotherbedefinedorwrittenoutinfullonfirstusewhetherinthemaintexttheabstractorotherancillarymaterialtoensurethatreaderswillunderstandboththeabbreviationsandwhattheauthorissayingabouttheabbreviatedtermsandconcepts.TheyalsotendtoCHAPTER5 232suggestthatabbreviationsonlybeusedifpracticalornecessaryandthattheybeemployedonlyfortermsandnamesthatareusedseveraltimesinanarticlefivetimesormoreaccordingtotheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.558.ThereforeifnonstandardabbreviationsareusedinanarticlewhetherthereareguidelinesornottheyalmostalwaysneedtobedefinedorintroducedwhichcanusuallybedoneparentheticallyAmericanPsychologicalAssociationAPAstyleisusedinmanyarticlesinthesocialsciences.Dependingonexactlywhattheauthorhasprovidedtheproofreadercanaddeitherthefullversionortheabbreviationasnecessarytofacilitateuseoftheabbreviationlaterinthepaper.HoweverifasissometimesthecasetheabbreviationisntactuallyusedagaininthepaperonlythefullversionofthetermisnecessarysotheproofreadercansimplyexpandtheabbreviationifthatisalltheauthorhasprovidedAmericanMedicalAssociationstyleisusedinmanypapersinthebiologicalandmedicalsciencesorremovetheabbreviationasunnecessaryifbothfullandabbreviatedversionsaregiven.Eitherwayacommentcanbeofferedtoexplainthattheresnoneedfortheabbreviation.Ifundefinedabbreviationsareunknowntotheproofreadertheycanbelookedupbutunlesswhatyoulearnleavesyouabsolutelysureaboutthemeaningitsbesttoalerttheauthortotheneedfordefinitionandleavetheadditiontohimorher.Ifagreatnumberofabbreviationsareusedinanarticleyoumightwanttosuggestthattheauthorreducethembyeliminatingthoseusedlessfrequentlyandoraddalistofabbreviationswithdefinitionsatthebeginningorendofthepaper.IfabbreviationsareusedbothextensivelyandinaconfusedorconfusingmannerwithgeneralinaccuracyorinconsistencyintheformofabbreviationsforinstanceorwiththesameabbreviationusedformorethanonetermorviceversatheproofreadermaywanttountanglecertainelementsormakeselectivechangestoshowCHAPTER5 233examplesofbetterpracticebuttheauthorshouldbeadvisedtoreviewandrevisehisorheruseofabbreviationsandperhapstomakealistofthemaswellbecausethatwillhelptheauthorrecognisehowmanythereareandjusthowinconsistenttheirformatis.Abbreviationsareonlyaseffectiveastheyareaccurateconsistentandpreciseandwhileanauthorsusageandsystemofdefinitionshouldberetainedunlessitisconfusingormisleadingabbreviationsoftenrequiresomeworkonthepartoftheproofreader.Ifalistofabbreviationsisrequiredbytheguidelinesbutnotyetprovidedbytheauthortheauthormustbeinformedinacommentoftherequirementandyoumayalsowanttostartthelistinthepositionsuggestedbytheguidelinesbutthisisnotnecessary.Ioftenlistinthecommentalertingtheauthortotheneedforalistallorsomeoftheabbreviationsthatshouldbeincludedwhichishelpfulbutleavestheconstructionofthelisttohimorher.Domakesurethatanylistofabbreviationstheauthorhasprovidedobservesalphabeticalorderasthisisstandardforenablingeffectiveuseofthelistandensureaswellthatallabbreviatedandfullversionsoftermsinthelistcorrespondtothoseusedinthemaintext.Thesameformsshouldbeusedintheabstractifabbreviationsareusedandorpermittedthereandabbreviationsusedintheabstractshouldbedefinedthereseparatelyeveniftheyarealsousedanddefinedinthemaintextofthepaper.AbbreviationsusedinotherpartsofapapersuchastablesandfiguresshouldonceagaintakethesameformsandallabbreviationsusedinatableorfigureshouldnormallybedefinedinthetableorfigureitselfofteninanoteappearingatthebottomofatablebutinthecaptionorkeytoafiguresothatthetableorfigurecanstandonitsownwithoutthereaderreferringtothemaintextfordefinitionsseeSections6.16.2below.TheabbreviationsusedinbibliographiesandreferenceliststendtobestandardisedandthususuallydonotrequiredefinitionbutanythatarenotabbreviatedCHAPTER5 234namesofcorporateauthorsforinstancesuchasWHOshouldbedefinedandanyusedinotherpartsofthetextaswelle.g.etal.shouldtakethesameforminbothplaceswithorwithoutitalicfontforinstanceinthecaseofetal..AsageneralrulewiththeexceptionofthoseusedmorefrequentlythantheirfullversionsIQandAIDSaregoodexamplesabbreviationsshouldbeavoidedintitlesandheadingsalthoughabbreviationsaresometimesallowedinthiscontextinsciencejournalsunlessthefulltermsareunwieldytheytendtobeclearerandabbreviationscanbeintroducedanddefinedorsimplyusedifalreadydefinedinthesentencefollowingtheheadingagoodpolicyinanycasesinceanewparagraphandsectionshouldalwaysstartwithaclearstatementofthesubject.Thereareseveraldifferentkindsofabbreviationsnotallofthemtrueabbreviationsthoughtheyarecommonlygroupedunderthatoneterminstyleguidesandjournalguidelines.Therulesandconventionsforusingthemarealsosimilarinmanycasesthoughthereisvariationfromstyletostyleanddisciplinetodisciplineevenfortheuseofonetypeofabbreviationorasingleabbreviationsoitsgoodtoconsultnotjustanyrelevantguidelinesbutalsowhateverresourcesyoumightrequiretounderstandatleastgenerallytheabbreviationsusedinthepaperyoureproofreading.ExcellentdetaileddiscussionsandlistsofabbreviationsandsymbolsofallkindsincludingthoseusedinspecialisedwaysinparticulardisciplinescanbefoundinStahlandKerchelich2001theChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter15withfurtherresourceslistedonp.877thePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.106111117123NewHartsRulesRitter2005Chapters1014Section13.2.2andButchersCopy-EditingButcheretal.2006Sections6.113.0.313.2.413.313.4.113.5.413.9.214.1.914.2.214.2.1514.3.1.SinceitwouldbeimpossibletocoverindetailherealltheabbreviationsacademicandscientificauthorsmightusetheseandotherresourcesshouldbeCHAPTER5 235consultedwhenproofreadingpaperswithextensiveorspecialisedabbreviations.InthediscussionbelowIoutlinethedifferentkindsofabbreviationsalongwiththebasicprinciplesofabbreviatingandfocusonabbreviationscommonlyencounteredinawiderangeofacademicandscientificpapersaswellastheparticularitiesoftheiruse.Atrueabbreviationisformedwhentheendofawordisomittedthefullstopthattendstoclosethissortofabbreviationrepresentsthemissinglettersassoc.cent.Mon.Sept.etc.butthefullstopdoesnotalwaysappear.FrequentlyreferredtoasanabbreviationisacontractioninwhichthemiddleofthewordismissingbecausethefinalletterofthewordisincludedafullstopisnotnecessaryandoftendoesnotappearasstMrsDrStetc.butthereareexceptions.ContractionscanuseapostrophesseeSection4.4.2abovebutinformalcontractionsthatdosoIvewontshouldntetc.arenotappropriateforformalscholarlyproseexceptwhenreportingorquotingspeech.AnacronymstrictlyspeakingisformedfromtheinitiallettersofthewordsthatmakeupatermornameandcanbereadasasinglewordasNASAAIDSandAWOLcanbe.Whenincommonuseacronymsaresometimeswrittenasanormalwordbearingonlyasingleinitialcapitale.g.Aids.AlsogenerallyreferredtoasanacronymbutnotatrueacronymisaninitialismwhichisalsoformedfromtheinitiallettersofthewordsthatmakeupatermornamebutinitialismsarepronouncedassinglelettersnotaswordsNGOsCBCandIQ.Itcansometimesbedifficulttodistinguishanacronymfromaninitialismifyoudonotknowtheabbreviationbutthedifferenceaffectspronunciationandcandeterminetheindefinitearticleaoranseebelowusedbeforeit.Symbolsorsignssuchasandaremoreabstractrepresentationsspecialtypographicalcharactersorlettersofthealphabetandcantakeamyriadofformsbothgenerallyandindifferentfieldsofstudybuttheytoorepresentawordorconceptinashortenedformat.CHAPTER5 236Lowercaseoruppercaselettersinabbreviations.AbbreviationsofallkindscanbeformedwithlowercaseoruppercaselettersoracombinationofthetwoNASAUNESCOIQassoc.etc.p.m.mphasstMrsPh.D.andDr.AstheseexamplesshowacronymsandinitialismstendtousealluppercaseletterswhiletrueabbreviationsandcontractionstendtousealllowercaselettersoraninitialcapitalfollowedbylowercaselettersbutthereareexceptionsUnescocanbewrittenwithonlyaninitialcapitalforinstancemphistechnicallyaninitialismanda.m.andp.m.generallyappearincapitalsinAmericanEnglishA.M.andP.M.sometimeswithoutthefullstopsAMandPMthoughthestopsshoulddefinitelybeusediftheresanychanceofconfusionwithAMmeaningAnnoMundiseethelistofLatinabbreviationsbelow.TheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.559helpfullypointsoutthatnounformsareusuallyuppercaseHIVVPadverbialformslowercaserpmmpg.Singlelettersusedassymbolscanbeuppercasee.g.RmeaningmultiplecorrelationorUtheMannWhitneyteststatisticorlowercasedforCohensmeasureofsampleeffectsizeorzforastandardisedscore.Fullstopswithabbreviations.AsImentionedabovetrueabbreviationsgenerallytakeoneormorefullstopsJan.Tues.andPh.D.withthelastlyingsomewherebetweenatrueabbreviationandaninitialismwhereascontractionsdonotMrsDrJrandSt.ThisisnotnecessarilypredictablehoweverandPh.D.andotherdegreetitlescanbewrittenwithoutthestopsPhDMAandMScaswellaswiththemwhileStwithoutastopusuallymeansSaintandSt.withastopmeansStreet.AcronymsandinitialismsusuallydonotusefullstopsWHOandREMthoughasinglecapitalletterabbreviatingawordisgenerallyfollowedbyastopinpersonalnamesforinstanceJ.SmithandJ.R.R.TolkienbutnotinallreferencingsystemssochecktheguidelinesthisisnottheCHAPTER5 237casewithcompasspointsNSEWhoweverorwhenanentirenameisabbreviatedJFKforJohnFitzgeraldKennedyorwhentheletterisactuallyasymbole.g.RorUinstatistics.Acronymsandinitialismsaremorelikelytousefullstopsiftheyarewritteninlowercaselettersb.h.p.butthesetooareoftenwrittenwithoutstopsmphiffullstopsareusedtheyshouldbeusedafteralllettersnotjustthelastb.h.p.notbhp..Standardabbreviatedformsforweightsandmeasuresgenerallydonottakestopskmmcmmmetc.withafewexceptionssuchasin.forinchandgal.forgallonthoughimperialmeasuresofthiskindaregenerallyonlysupplementarytothemetricmeasuresthatarepreferredbymostjournals.Asageneralrulefullstopsareusedlessfrequentlyinscientificcontextsmin.andsec.forexampleusuallyfeatureastopingeneralcontextsbutnotinscientificpapersbutAmericanEnglishtendstousefullstopsmorefrequentlythanBritishEnglishdoesincludingincontractionsMrs.Mr.andJr.andinitialismsU.S.A.andR.E.M.thoughdonotethattheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.559recommendsthatfullstopsnotbeusedinall-capitalabbreviations.Whentrueabbreviationssuchasvol.andch.areusedaspluralswithansattheendtheytechnicallybecomecontractionsbecausetheyincludethelastletterofthewordssostrictlyspeakingtheydontrequireafullstopbutoneisusuallyusedinanycaseforconsistencywiththesingularformsvols.andchs..Inanunusualabbreviationsuchascoforcareoftheslashtakestheplaceofthefirstfullstopandthesecondstopisomitted.Punctuationafterabbreviations.IfanabbreviatedformusingafinalfullstopappearsattheendofasentencenoadditionalstopisnecessarythesinglestopperformsbothfunctionsThetrialtookplaceat9a.m.butifaquestionorexclamationmarkclosesthesentenceitshouldappearimmediatelyaftertheabbreviationsfinalstopDidthetrialtakeplaceat9a.m.IfthesentencecontinuesCHAPTER5 238afteranabbreviationusingstopsanynecessarypunctuationcommasemicoloncolonordashshouldappearimmediatelyafterthefinalstopoftheabbreviationThetrialtookplaceat9a.m.butwemissedit.Someabbreviationssuchase.g.meaningforexamplei.e.meaningthatisandviz.meaningnamelyarefollowedbyacommainmostinstancesduetotheirmeaningsandfunctionsbutthisisnotalwaysthecasesomestyleswilldiscouragetheuseofthecommainordertoavoiddoublepunctuationafullstopandacommatogether.Aoranbeforeabbreviations.Theuseofaoranwhenanindefinitearticleisneededbeforeanabbreviationdependsonthepronunciationoftheabbreviationwhenreadaloud.SoashouldbeusedbeforeabbreviationsbeginningwithaconsonantsoundincludingavowelpronouncedasaworysoundaPh.D.dissertationandaUNICEFgreetingcard.WhenanabbreviationbeginswithavowelsoundhoweveranshouldbeusedanAPAsystemofreferencingandanMPsriding.AcronymsreadaswordstendnottousearticlesatallexceptwhentheyreusedadjectivallythelaunchtookplaceatNASAbutaNASAlaunchwhereasinitialismssoundedasindividualletterstendtouseanarticledefiniteorindefiniteaCDanSOSandtheEU.Spacingassociatedwithabbreviations.Asageneralrulespacesdonotappearwithinabbreviationswhetherfullstopsareincludedornotastheaboveexamplesdemonstrate.Thereareexceptionshoweveradlibetal.andpercentallfeatureaspacethoughthelastisasinglewordinAmericanEnglishpercentbutsincethefirstelementoftheseformsisntreallyanabbreviationthespaceislogicalfl.oz.op.cit.andloc.cit.arelesslogicalbecausebothelementsareabbreviatedbutaspaceappearsinanycase.BetweentheinitialsofpersonalnamesspacesareoftenusedJ.R.R.TolkienCHAPTER5 239butnotinsomereferencingsystemsandsomestyleswillwantthespaceseliminatedinrunningtextaswelltoavoidtheseparationoftheinitialsbylinebreaksJ.R.R.Tolkien.Whennumeralsareusedalongwithstandardabbreviationsforweightsandmeasuresaspaceusuallyappearsbetweenthenumeralandtheabbreviation36km50mph5kgetc.butincomputingthespaceisoftenomitted512kB25MB3GBetc..Differentspacingcansometimesconveydifferentmeaningswhenthedegreesymbolisusedfortemperatureforinstanceaspaceusuallyappearsbetweenthenumeralandthedegreesymbolwhichiscloseupagainstthescaleabbreviation15Cand73Fbutwhenexpressingdegreesofinclinationorangleordegreesoflatitudeandlongitudethedegreesymbolnormallyappearscloseuptothenumeralanangleof180and50N20W.Thesymbolforpercentagealsoappearsupagainstthenumeral33althoughaspaceappearsbetweenthenumeralandthelongerabbreviationforpercentage33percentandotherabbreviationsandsymbolsaresimilarlyusedwithnumeralsbutwithoutspaces55.26forinstance3.2.5forSection3.2.5and43ff.generallyusedofpagenumbersthoughspacesshouldappeararoundff.ifitisusedinconjunctionwithotherlowercaselettersfol.127vff..ExamplesofspacedandunspacedabbreviationsarelistedinTable6.1ofButcheretal.2006p.121.Pluralsandpossessivesofabbreviations.AlthoughthereareinstancesofapluraltermsuchasUnitedNationsbeingabbreviatedinawaythatdoesnotshowthepluralnatureofthefullversiontheinitialismUNifanabbreviationisusedforbothsingularandpluralformsofatermornameaseparatepluralformmustusuallybeestablished.ToformthepluralofmostabbreviationsansisaddedtotheendCDsandKIsthesingularofthelatterbeingKIandiftheabbreviationcontainsmorethanonefullstopthesshouldbeaddedafterthelaststopthedepartmentproducedfiveD.Phil.sthisCHAPTER5 240yearandsheused17etal.sinoneparagraph.AspectsofthesentencerelatingtotheabbreviationsuchasverbsshouldreflectthepluralnatureoftheabbreviationjustastheywouldwerethefulltermusedtheCDsareoverthereandtheKIswereforthcoming.Thepluralsofsomeabbreviationsareformedunusuallybydoublingaletterwithf.forfollowingbecomingff.l.forlinebecomingll.p.forpagebecomingpp.andMSformanuscriptumbecomingMSSmanuscripta.AnapostropheshouldnotbeaddedalongwiththestoformapluralthoughinpluralformsofasingleletteranapostropheissometimesusedforclaritywecountedtheDsandWs.UsuallyanapostropheandsarereservedforpossessiveformshowevertheKIsreportwasveryhelpfulandinthepluraltheKIsreportswereveryhelpful.Standardabbreviationsforweightsandmeasurestendtotakethesameforminboththesingularandplural1mmand87mmnot87mmsand1kgand3kgnot3kgsbutansissometimesaddedtoyryrsandthepluralhourscanberepresentedbyhrhespeciallyinscientificcontextsorhrs.Italicfontonabbreviations.Ifthefulltermornameappearsinitalicstheabbreviationshouldusuallyappearinitalicfontaswell.ThisappliestoinitialismsofthetitlesofbooksandjournalsOEDfortheOxfordEnglishDictionaryandPPforPiersPlowmanaswellasabbreviatedtitlessuchasJAdvNursfortheJournalofAdvancedNursingandshortenedtitlescreatedforthepurposeofreferencingPublicationManualoftheAPAforThePublicationManualoftheAmericanPsychologicalAssociation.ItdoesnotapplytoallabbreviationshoweverMSinromanfontforinstancerepresentsmanuscriptum.AnyshortenedformsofitalicisedforeigntermsusedinapapershouldgenerallyusethesameitalicfontHehadacertainjoiedevivrethisjoiesupportedhimthroughdarktimes.AlthoughcommonLatinabbreviationstendtoappearinromanfontcf.e.g.etc.i.e.viz.andvs.somethatareusedinreferencescanbeCHAPTER5 241setineitherromanoritalicfontetal.ibid.loc.cit.andop.cit.oretal.ibid.loc.cit.andop.cit.andothersshouldalmostalwaysuseitalicfontsuchasthoseusedindatesc.caorca.forcircaandfl.forfloruit.SeethelistofindividualLatinabbreviationsbelow.Abbreviationsatthebeginningofasentence.All-capitalabbreviationsacronymsandinitialismscanbeusedatthebeginningofasentencebutinrunningtextotherkindsofabbreviationslowercaseandlowercaseanduppercaseblendedarenotthebestchoicesforthebeginningofasentenceandsymbolsshouldneverbeusedinthispositioninformalprose.Insuchcasesitsbestifthewordorwordsrepresentedbytheabbreviationorsymbolbewrittenoutinfullorthesentencecanbeadjustedsothatitbeginsdifferently50wasaveryhighpriceforitcouldbecomeforinstanceFiftydollarswasaveryhighpriceforitandMphwerenottheproblemitwasthelackofattentionthatcausedtheaccidentcouldbecomeeitherMilesperhourwerenottheproblemitwasthelackofattentionthatcausedtheaccidentorSpeedwasnottheproblemitwasthelackofattentionthatcausedtheaccident.AbbreviatedsocialtitlesareacceptableatthebeginningofasentencehoweverMrsSmithlosthercatandDrBrownhadmanypatients.InnotesontheotherhandabbreviationsthatarenormallylowercasecanbecapitalisedforuseatthebeginningofasentenceChs.4and5arestillinprogressandNos.6to10werelostbutwritingtheseoutasChapters4and5andNumbers6to10isstillagoodstylisticchoiceunlessspaceislimited.Afewlowercaseabbreviationstendtobeacceptableintheirusuallowercaseformatthebeginningoffootnotesorendnotesc.caorca.e.g.i.e.l.ll.p.andpp.areoftentreatedinthiswayandcf.isoccasionallyaswellseetheparagraphsoncommonabbreviationsinreferencesandcommonLatinabbreviationsbelowandformoreonfootnotesandendnotesseeSection3.1.4above.IftherearenopressingspaceconstraintsCHAPTER5 242howeversuchuncapitalisedformscanbeavoidedatthebeginningofnotesaswellandwhenproofreadingItendtosuggestorproviderewordingtoachievethisbyusingCompareforcf.forinstanceForexamplefore.g.andPagesforpp.especiallyiftheuseofthelowercaseabbreviationsortheircapitalisationisparticularlyawkwardorfrequent.Theampersand.Theampersandisasymbolrepresentingandandshouldnotasageneralrulebeusedinthemaintextofanarticle.Occasionallywhenanauthorneedstomakeacleardistinctioncanbeusedintherunningtextofformalprosetheresultsofthefirstsecondandthirdtestswerecomparedbutinalmostallsuchcasesmoreprecisephrasingispreferabletheresultsofthefirstandsecondtestwerecomparedwiththoseofthethird.MoreacceptableistheampersandsuseinthetitlesofworksandthenamesofcompaniesandinstitutionsiftheampersandisinfactusedconsistentlybytheworkcompanyorinstitutionitselfasitisintheJournalofElderAbuseNeglectMillsBoonandMMs.SometimesampersandsareusedinabbreviatedcompoundssuchasRBRDandBBwhichcantakedifferentformswithandwithoutspacesandfullstopsBBBBB.B.B.B.bbb.b.b.b.andbbareallpossiblebutoneformshouldbeusedconsistentlythroughoutapaperanoptionalformforRBisRnBinwhichthespacingisnecessaryseeSection4.4.2above.Theampersandisfrequentlyusedinparentheticalauthordatein-textreferencesbetweenthenamesofjointauthorsJohnsonTaylorSmith2011SmithJones2007butwhentheauthornamesappearinthemainbodyofthetextandshouldbeusedinsteadInthestudyofSmithandJones2007andJohnsonSmithandTaylorexploredthisideain2011.TheampersandisusedinotherparentheticalmaterialaswellsuchasseeSections16andTables23whichbythewayusesandCHAPTER5 243aswellasinordertodistinguishsectionsfromtables.Theampersandcanalsobeusedintablesfiguresnotesandotherancillarymaterialandisfrequentlyusedinbibliographiesandreferencelistsinthenamesofpublishingcompaniesandcorporateauthorsinthetitlesofworksandinsomestylesbetweenauthornamesasinthisbook.PRSTipConfusionisalltoopossibleifabbreviationsarenotcompletelyaccurateandusedwithabsoluteprecisionandconsistency.IvealreadymentionedthedistinctionafullstopbetweentheabbreviationsforSaintandStreetbutIdalsoliketoprovideacoupleofexamplestoillustratethepotentialforambiguityandtheimportanceofeachandeverydetailassociatedwithabbreviationsandtheirusenomatterhowsmallorinsignificantthosedetailsmayseem.ThefirstisthesymbolreferredtoasthenumberpoundorhashsignwhichisoftenusedinAmericanEnglishtoindicatenumber.IftheintendedreadershipisintheUnitedStatesonlytheuseofthissymbolmightbeacceptableforrepresentingnumberbutasageneralruleitshouldbeavoidedinformalscholarlyprosebecauseitdoesnotusuallymeanthatinBritainforinstanceandhasothermeaningsdependingonthecontextitisusedforexampleasasymbolinlinguisticsmusicandproofcorrectionontelephonekeyboardsthepoundkeyandmorerecentlyinhashtagsforsocialnetworkingandthelike.Sothestandardabbreviationno.pluralnos.isamuchbetterchoiceforrepresentingnumberinpapersthatwillbereadinaninternationalcontext.TheabbreviationMSalsohasmorethanonemeaningsothemeaningintendedinanygivensituationneedstobespecifiedviatheformatoftheCHAPTER5 244abbreviationandthewayinwhichitisusedinasentence.MSasaninitialismmeansmultiplesclerosisandisreadasindividualletterssoitshouldbeusedwithanwhenanindefinitearticleisrequired.MSintheexactsameformalsomeansmanuscripttechnicallytheLatinmanuscriptumhoweverandwhilethepluralMSSclearlyindicatesthismeaningidentifyingthemeaningofthesingulardependsuponcontextandthefactthatitispronouncedasthewordmanuscriptmanuscriptumsoisprecededbyawhenanindefinitearticleisneeded.TocomplicatemattersfurtherMScanalsobeusedtoabbreviateMasterofSciencethoughinthiscasealternateformscanbeusedtospecifythatmeaningM.S.MScandM.Sc.InadditionwhenthesameabbreviationusesaninitialcapitalonlyMsorMs.itisasocialtitlepreferredbymanywomenbecauseitdoesnotdeterminemaritalstatusasMrsorMissdoes.Finallymsusingalllowercaselettersabbreviatesmillisecond.Withthelastthreeabbreviationsthereismuchlesspotentialforconfusionofcoursebutinallcasesclarityisdeterminedbyextremelycarefulusageandtheproofreadershouldensureviacommentsorcorrectionsthatthisisthecase.Commonabbreviationsusedinreferences.ThefollowingstandardabbreviationsincludingalternateformsifrelevantarecommonlyusedinreferencesbothsourceandcrossreferencesthoughsomeofthemcanbeusedelsewhereinapaperseealsotheparagraphsbelowonLatinabbreviationssomeofwhichareusedinreferencesaswell.TheydonotrequiredefinitionbutguidelinesstyleguidesandauthorsdifferslightlyintermsofexactlywhichabbreviationstheypreferandinwhatformatthecapitalisationandspacingusedforinstancedependingonstyleorlocationwithinCHAPTER5 245areferencesochecktheguidelinescarefullyifthereareanymakethemostoftheauthorspredominantusageandensurethatoneformofeachisusedconsistentlythroughoutapaper.App.app.addanstoformthepluralappendix.BkbkBk.bk.addanstoformthepluralbook.Ch.ch.Chap.chap.addanstoformthepluralchapterseealsoc.cap.amongtheLatinabbreviationsbelow.Co.addanstoformthepluralCompany.Col.col.addanstoformthepluralcolumn.Countryabbreviationsaresometimesaddedaftercitiesofpublicationincompletebibliographicalreferencesespeciallyifacityisnotlargeorwellknown.Thesetendtotakeasimpletwo-letterformwithoutstopsorspacesCAforCanadaFRforFranceandUKfortheUnitedKingdombutthecountrynamescanbewrittenoutaswordsinstead.StateabbreviationsareusedalongwithcitiesintheUnitedStatesseebelow.Ed.ed.addanstoformthepluraleditororedition.Areferencingstylewilloftenusethecapitalisedformforonemeaningandthelowercasefortheother.EdnednEdn.edn.addanstoformthepluraledition.esp.especially.f.fthepluralformisff.orffandthefollowingpage.Asinglef.isacceptableinsomestylesandff.meaningandthefollowingpagesisincommonusebutprovidingthesecondnumberforaspecificrangeofpagesisalwayspreferablei.e.pp.1415isfarbetterthanpp.14f.andpp.1419isbetterthanpp.14ff..Fig.fig.addanstoformthepluralfigure.Folfol.Fo.fo.addanstoformthepluralfolio.Inc.Incorporated.InitialsofauthorsfirstnamesoftenfeaturefullstopsandspacesJ.R.R.TolkienbutinmanycasesthespacesareomittedexceptafterthelastinitialofanameJ.R.R.TolkienandinsomeCHAPTER5 246referencingstylesthefullstopsareomittedwhetherthespacesareretainedJRRTolkienornotJRRTolkien.AuthornamesparticularlythefirstauthorofeachsourceareofteninvertedsotheinitialscomeafterthesurnamewithorwithoutaprecedingcommaTolkienJ.R.R.orTolkienJRR.l.thepluralformisll.line.ThisabbreviationcanbeusedinlowercaseatthebeginningofanotebutsinceitcaneasilybecomeconfusedwithbothArabicandRomannumerals111IandIIitisbestavoidedifpossible.LtdLtd.Limited.N.d.n.d.nodate.n.nthepluralformisnn.ornnnote.N.p.n.p.nopublishernoplaceofpublicationornopage.p.pthepluralformispp.orpppage.Thisabbreviationcanbeusedinlowercaseatthebeginningofanote.Para.para.addanstotheabbreviationordoublethesymboltoformthepluralparagraph.PtptPt.pt.addanstoformthepluralpart.S.SSuppl.suppl.supplement.AsingleSmightalsobeaGermanabbreviationforpageoraScandinavianabbreviationforsidesodowatchforanypotentialconfusionasageneralrulesuchforeignabbreviationsshouldbetranslatedintoEnglishabbreviationsorwordsinreferences.sc.addanstoformthepluralscene.Sec.sec.addanstotheabbreviationoranextrasymboltoformthepluralsection.Ser.ser.series.Sometimesans.aloneisusedforserieswhencombinedwithanotherletterwordasino.s.occasionallyOSforoldseriesn.s.occasionallyNSfornewseriesands.s.occasionallySSforsecondseries.StateabbreviationsfortheUnitedStatesareoftenincludedafterAmericancitiesofpublicationincompletebibliographicalCHAPTER5 247referencesespeciallyifacityisnotlargeorwellknown.Thesegenerallytakeasimpletwo-letterformwithbothlettersuppercaseCAforCaliforniaDEforDelawareandPAforPennsylvaniathoughinsomestylesonlythefirstletteroftheabbreviationisuppercaseCaDeandPa.SeeAppendix3inButcheretal.2006formoreinformationonstateabbreviations.Tr.tr.Trans.trans.translatorortranslation.v.thepluralformisvv.verse.Theabbreviationv.isalsousedinreferencestolegalcasestorepresenttheLatinwordversusbutsinceversetendstobeusedinliterarystudiesthereisrarelyoverlapwithlegalmatterifthereisconfusionitisbesttowriteverseoutinstead.Vol.vol.addanstoformthepluralvolume.Latinabbreviations.ThereareanumberofstandardLatinabbreviationsthatdonotnormallyrequiredefinitionwhentheyareusedinformalscholarlyprosebutsomeofthemtendtobemisusedpresumablybecausetheirprecisemeaningsarenotfullyunderstoodorarenotconsideredcarefullyenoughinrelationtothecontext.TheformatofmanyoftheseabbreviationscanvaryintermsofcapitalisationfontromanoritalicandpunctuationdependingontheguidelinesorstylefollowedtheversionofEnglishBritishorAmericanusedandauthorpreferencesandpractices.Inafewcasestheabbreviationscanbeconfusingforthereaderandtendtobeusedagreatdeallessintheearlytwenty-firstcenturythantheywereinthepastinotherstheabbreviationsarebestavoidedintherunningtextofapaperbutcanbefreelyusedinnotesparentheticalmaterialandotherancillarymatter.ThelistbelowprovidespossiblevariantsofanumberofthemostcommonLatinabbreviationsalongwithdefinitionsandsomebriefnotesontheirusethatmaywellprovehelpfulwhenconsideredalongsidetherequirementsofanyguidelinesprovidedthepatternsoftheauthorspredominantusageCHAPTER5 248andthedemandsofclearcommunication.TheproofreadershouldensurethateachLatinabbreviationisusedandformattedinanacceptablewaythattheabbreviationchosenforeachtermisdistinctfromotherabbreviationsinapaperfromsimilarEnglishabbreviationsforexampleandthateachabbreviationtakesaconsistentformthroughoutthearticleideallyonethatshareselementswithotherabbreviationswithsimilarformatsandfunctions.ForalistofscholarlyabbreviationsthatcontainsseverallesscommonlyusedLatinabbreviationsforwhichIdonthaveroomhereseeSection15.45intheChicagoManualofStyle2003.AcademicdegreeabbreviationssometimesrepresentLatintermsinsteadofEnglishones.ThisisthecasewithM.D.forMedicinaeDoctorDoctorofMedicineforinstanceandPh.D.forPhilosophiaeDoctorDoctorofPhilosophyseeSection15.21oftheChicagoManualofStyle2003forfurtherexamples.TheseabbreviationscanusefullstopsornotMDorM.D.andPhDorPh.D.andareenclosedincommaswhentheyfollowapersonalnameJohnSmithPh.D.isthefirstapplicant.Romannotitalicfontisusedforalldegreeabbreviationswhichcanbeusedinthemainrunningtextofapaper.art.cit.art.cit.articulocitatointhecitedarticle.Usedinreferencesafteranauthorsnametorefertothetitleofanalreadycitedarticlethisabbreviationisnowlittleusedandsomejournalguidelineswillaskthatitbeavoided.Whenuseditcanappearineitherromanoritalicfontbutusingashortenedversionofthearticletitleispreferable.c.caca.circaapproximatelyorabout.Thisabbreviationisalmostalwaysusedinitalicfontandalthoughthesingle-ordouble-letterformthelatterwithorwithoutafullstopissometimespreferredeitherisacceptableaslongasitismaintainedthroughoutanarticle.TheabbreviationoftenappearsbeforeuncertaindatesandnumeralsinwhichcasethereisnoCHAPTER5 249spacebetweentheabbreviationandthenumberc.1275butaspaceshouldappearifitprecedesaletterorwordc.AD1275.Ifbothdatesgivenforaspanofdatesareapproximatetheabbreviationshouldappearwitheachdatec.1275c.1300butdatesusingacircaabbreviationshouldnotbeelided.AlthoughtheabbreviationcanbeusedinthiswaywithdatesandothernumeralsintherunningtextofapaperinmanyinstancesitwillbepreferabletouseanEnglishwordinstead.Atthebeginningofanotethisabbreviationcanremainlowercase.c.cap.capitulumchapter.AnalternativetotheEnglishabbreviationsforchapterseeabovethisabbreviationtendstobeusedincitationsandreferencesandgenerallyappearsinromanfontwhichpreventsconfusionwithc.forcirca.cf.confercompare.Frequentlymisusedtomeanseeinsteadofcomparethisabbreviationalmostalwaysappearsinromanfontandisgenerallyonlyusedinparenthesesorancillarymaterialsuchasfootnotesorendnotes.IntherunningtextofthemainbodyofapapertheEnglishcompareorsimilarwordingshouldbeusedinstead.Theabbreviationcanbeusedinlowercaseatthebeginningofanote.C.V.CVcurriculumvitaecourseoflife.Thisabbreviationisusedinromanfontandreferstoabiographicalrsumofapersonstrainingandcareersuchasthatusedwhenapplyingforajoborprovidingcredentials.Itcanusuallybeusedinthemainrunningtextofapaper.dram.pers.dram.pers.dramatispersonaecharactersoftheplay.UsuallyappearinginromanfontthisabbreviationisappropriateforparentheticalorancillarymaterialsuchasnotesandtablesinrunningtextthefullLatinoranequivalentEnglishversionshouldbeused.e.g.exempligratiaforexample.ThisabbreviationalmostalwaysappearsinromanfontandisusedwithgreatfrequencyCHAPTER5 250sometimesexcessivefrequencyinacademicandscientificarticleswhereitissometimesconfusedwithi.e.seebelow.AsageneralruleitshouldbeusedonlyinparenthesesorancillarymaterialsuchasnotesintherunningtextofthemainbodyofapaperequivalentEnglishwordsforexampleforinstanceandthelikearepreferable.Theabbreviationshouldbeprecededbyacommasemicolonorcolonoranopeningparenthesisifitisprovidedinparenthesesandisusuallyfollowedbyacommaaswell.Itcanremainlowercaseatthebeginningofanote.EraabbreviationssometimesrepresentLatininsteadofEnglishtermssuchasADforAnnoDominiIntheYearoftheLordChristianAHforAnnoHegiraeIntheYearoftheHegiraMuslimandAMforAnnoMundiIntheYearoftheWorldJewishforfurtherexamplesandexplanationsseetheChicagoManualofStyle2003Section15.41andRitter2005Section11.6.3.ALatinabbreviationforachronologicalerashouldappearinromanfontandprecedetheyearAD1275whereasanEnglishabbreviationofanerafollowstheyear316BC.AlthoughtheseLatineraabbreviationscanfeaturefullstopsA.D.A.H.andA.MtheyusuallydonotwhichinthelastexampleconvenientlyavoidsconfusionwiththecapitalisedA.M.abbreviationforantemeridiemseebelow.etal.etaletal.etaletaliimasculineetaliaefeminineetalianeutermeaningandothers.Predominantlyusedforreferencesthisabbreviationcannonethelessappearinthemainrunningtextofanarticle.Afullstopshouldneverappearafteretbecauseitisthecompletewordforandsoisnotabbreviated.Afullstopdoesusuallyappearaftertheabbreviatedalhoweverbutnotinallstylesorforallguidelinesanditalicsaresometimesusedandsometimesnot.Thereisconsiderablevariationinwhenetal.shouldbeusedaswellforthreeormoreauthorsforfourormoreorforsixormoredependingontheguidelinesandCHAPTER5 251whetheritisusedinthemaintextorinthereferencelistbibliographyformoreinformationontheuseofetal.seeSections3.1.13.1.23.2above.Guidelinesalsodifferwithregardtowhetheracommashouldbeusedbeforeetal.ornot.etc.etceteraandtherestandsoforthorandotherthings.ThisfrequentlyusedabbreviationalmostalwaysappearsinromanfontandshouldbeusedonlyinparenthesesorancillarymaterialsuchasnotesinthemainrunningtextofapaperequivalentEnglishwordsandsoonforinstanceorandthelikearepreferable.Whenusedinlistsasitoftenistheabbreviationshouldfollowatleasttwosomeadvicesuggeststhreeitemssothatthereaderisgivenenoughinformationtoconjecturehowthelistmightcontinuebluebirdsrobinsetc.notbluebirdsetc..Iftheserialcommaisnormallyusedinapaperthenacommashouldprecedeetc.butthecommaisnotnecessaryiftheserialcommaisnotusedelsewhereinthepaper.Whileetc.canbeusedwhenlistingtypesofpeopleandothersortheabbreviationetal.isbetterwhenlistingindividualpeople.Theabbreviationshouldnotbeusedattheendofalistthatbeginswithsuchase.g.forexampleorincludingbecausetheseindicatethatthelistwillbeincompleteandetc.shouldnotbewrittenwithanampersandcexceptwhenanoldersourceisbeingduplicatedortranscribed.etseq.etseq.pluraletseqq.etseqq.etsequenswiththepluraletsequentesandthefollowing.Generallybutnotalwaysusedinitalicfontthisabbreviationinitssingularandpluralformsisanalternativetof.andff.seethelistofabbreviationsusedinreferencesabove.Itisusedafterapagenumbertorefertothefollowingpagespp.56etseq.andpp.56etseqq.butunlessguidelinesindicateotherwisef.orff.isusuallypreferableandaspecificpagerangepreferabletobothpp.5657andpp.5662.WhenitisusedafullstopshouldnotappearCHAPTER5 252afteretwhichisnotabbreviatedbutastopshouldappearaftertheabbreviatedseq.orseqq.fl.fl.floruitflourished.Thisabbreviationisusedgenerallyparentheticallyalongwithadateordatestoindicatetheapproximateactiveorproductiveperiodofahistoricalindividualwhenbirthanddeathdatesareuncertain.ItusuallybutnotalwaysappearsinitalicfontbeforetherelevantdateordateswithaspacebetweentheabbreviationandthefirstdateWilliamLanglandfl.13501390.InthemainrunningtextofapaperequivalentEnglishwordsareusuallypreferableWilliamLanglandwasactiveinthesecondhalfofthefourteenthcentury.ibid.ibid.occasionallyib.orib.ibideminthesameplaceorinthatveryplace.Appearingineitherromanoroccasionallyitalicfontibid.isusedparticularlyinreferencesbutnotasoftenasitoncewasittendsnowtobeusedprimarilyforfootnoteandendnotereferencesinthehumanitiesespeciallywhenguidelinescallforit.Itisusedinsteadofrepeatingbibliographicalinformationwhenasourceiscitedagainimmediatelywithoutanyinterveningreferencesafterithasbeencitedintheprecedingnoteorsentencewithinanote.Becauseitmeansinthatveryplaceitmustbeusedwithgreatcareonlyifeverythingaboutthesecondcitationisexactlythesameasthefirstcanitbeusedaloneandanyinformationthatdiffersmustbeprovidedalongwithibid.e.g.ibid.p.7forthesameauthorandtitlebutadifferentpage.Ibid.shouldonlybeusedifthereferenceandinformationintendedisabsolutelyclearotherwiseitshouldbeavoided.Occasionallyacommaappearsbetweenibid.andafollowingpagenumberorotherlocation.id.id.ead.ead.eid.eid.eaed.eaed.idemmasculineeademfeminineeidemmasculinepluraleaedemfemininepluralmeaningthesamepersonorforthepluralthesamepeople.AlthoughitismorecommontousethefullversionsofCHAPTER5 253theseLatinwordstheabbreviationsareoccasionallyusedinreferencesineitherromanoritalicfont.TheiruseismuchrarerthanitoncewasbutbothformscanbeusedinreferencesassubstitutesforauthornameswhenworksbythesameauthorsarecitedconsecutivelyacommashouldnormallyfollowtheabbreviationorLatinwordjustasitwouldanauthorsname.Theseabbreviationsmustbeusedappropriatelyintermsofgenderandnumbersothenameofasinglemaleauthorshouldbereplacedwithid.oridemthenameofasinglefemaleauthorwithead.oreademthenamesofjointmaleauthorsoramixtureofmaleandfemaleauthorswitheid.oreidemandthenamesofjointfemaleauthorswitheaed.oreaedem.Ifthereisanydoubtabouttheauthororauthorsintendedoranydoubtaboutthegenderoftheauthororauthorstheuseofboththeabbreviationsandthefullversionsshouldbeavoided.i.e.idestthatis.Thisabbreviationalmostalwaysappearsinromanfontandisfrequentlyusedinacademicandscientificarticleswhereitissometimesconfusedwithe.g.seeabove.AsageneralruleitshouldbeusedonlyinparenthesesorancillarymaterialsuchasnotesintherunningtextofthemainbodyofapaperequivalentEnglishwordsthatisorevennamelyinsomecasesarepreferable.Theabbreviationshouldbeprecededbyacommasemicolonorcolonoranopeningparenthesisifitisprovidedinparenthesesandisusuallyfollowedbyacommaaswell.Itcanremainlowercaseatthebeginningofanote.inf.inf.infrabelow.AppearingineitherromanoritalicfontthisabbreviationisusedprimarilyforparentheticalcrossreferencesasisthefullwordinsomeinstancesbutitisusuallybesttoreplacebothwiththeEnglishwordbelow.loc.cit.loc.cit.lococitatointhecitedplace.UsedforreferencingineitherromanoritalicfontthisabbreviationrepresentsaspecificlocationwithinaworksoitsfunctionisextremelylimiteditisalsoCHAPTER5 254oftenmisunderstoodandusedininappropriateways.Althoughitcanpreventtherepetitionoflongandcomplexlocationreferencesthisabbreviationmustbeusedwithabsoluteprecisiontobeeffectivebutsincerepeatingtheinformationusuallytakesverylittlemorespacethantheabbreviationandisalwaysclearertheabbreviationisbestavoided.MSpluralMSSmanuscriptumwiththepluralmanuscriptamanuscriptormanuscripts.SetinromanfontthisabbreviationisoftenreadasabbreviatingtheEnglishwordmanuscriptbutistechnicallyaLatinabbreviation.ItisgenerallynotusedinthemainrunningtextofapaperexceptwhenprovidingaparticularmanuscriptnameandnumberLondonBritishLibraryMSRoyal5.C.Vbutitcanbeusedmorefreelyinparentheticalandancillarymaterialsuchasnotesandtables.n.n.natusborn.Ineitherromanoritalicfontthisabbreviationcanbeusedbeforethebirthdateofanindividualwithoutanyinterveningspacebetweentheabbreviationandthedaten.1945butonlyinparentheticalorancillarymaterialandoftentheEnglishabbreviationb.forbornusedinexactlythesamewaybutalwaysinromanfontispreferred.no.addansforthepluralnumeronumber.AlthoughoftenunderstoodasabbreviatingtheEnglishwordnumberthisabbreviationisactuallyacontractionoftheLatinnumerobutonethatalmostalwaysusesafullstopwhichconvenientlydistinguishesitfromthewordnoinEnglish.Setinromanfontthisabbreviationtendstobeusedinreferencesalongwithnumeralsandinancillarymaterialsuchastablesandfigures.Ifnoneofthesesituationsapplyandtheabbreviationappearsinrunningtextitisusuallybesttowritethewordnumberoutinstead.ob.ob.obiitdied.IneitherromanoritalicfontthisabbreviationcanbeusedbeforethedeathdateofanindividualwithoutanyCHAPTER5 255interveningspacebetweentheabbreviationandthedateob.2011butonlyinparentheticalorancillarymaterialandoftentheEnglishabbreviationd.fordiedusedinexactlythesamewaybutalwaysinromanfontispreferred.op.cit.op.cit.operecitatointhecitedwork.Usedinreferencesafteranauthorsnametorefertothetitleofanalreadycitedworkthisabbreviationisnowlittleusedandsomejournalguidelineswillaskthatitbeavoided.Whenuseditcanappearineitherromanoritalicfontbutusingashortenedversionofthetitleispreferable.percentpercentpercentumbythehundred.AlthoughthisabbreviationandsymbolisessentiallynaturalisedinEnglishitremainsanabbreviationofapureLatintermandappearsinmanyscholarlypapers.Somestylesandguidelineswillaskthatthesymbolnotbeusedintherunningtextofarticlesbutallthreeformsareoftenusedinthemainbodyofpaperswiththetwo-wordabbreviationpredominantinBritishEnglishandtheone-wordabbreviationinAmericanEnglish.Italwaysappearsinromanfontfeaturesnofullstopandisusuallyespeciallyasaccompaniedbyanumberintheformofanumeralratherthanawordwhentheamountisnotexactthenumbercanappearasawordwithpercentorpercent.rrectoontheright.Almostalwayssetinromanfontthisabbreviationisusedtorefertothefrontorfirstpageofafoliowhichappearsontherightwhenabookliesopenbeforethereader.Itisusedprimarilyinreferencestomanuscriptsimmediatelyafterthefolionumberwithoutinterveningspacefol.72rsometimesinasuperscriptfontfol.72randitisacceptableinbothparentheticalmaterialandthemainrunningtext.Therectoabbreviationissometimesomittedhoweverasunnecessarywithfol.72referringtotherectoofthefolioandfol.72vreferringtotheversothebackorsecondpageofthefolioseetheabbreviationvbelow.WhenrectoandorversoCHAPTER5 256referencesareusedfolionumbersshouldnotbeelided.s.ss.forthepluralsaeculumwiththepluralsaeculaanageoracenturyorinthepluralagesorcenturies.AlmostalwayssetinromanfontthisabbreviationisusedalongwithusuallylowercaseRomannumeralstoindicatecenturieswiths.xiireferringtothetwelfthcenturyparticularlywhendatingmediaevalmanuscripts.Itismostacceptableinparentheticalmaterialbutisoftenusedinfigurecaptionsandlegendsaswell.sup.sup.supraabove.AppearingineitherromanoritalicfontthisabbreviationisusedprimarilyforcrossreferencesasisthefullwordinsomeinstancesbutitisoftenbesttoreplacebothwiththeEnglishwordabove.Thesameisthecasewithutsup.utsup.abbreviatingutsupraasaboveisclearerforEnglishreaders.TimeofdayinrelationtonoonisindicatedbytheLatinabbreviationsa.m.orA.M.forantemeridiembeforenoonp.m.orP.M.forpostmeridiemafternoonandfarmorerarelym.orM.formeridiesnoon.AlthoughtheseabbreviationssometimesappearparticularlyinAmericanEnglishwithoutfullstopswhencapitalisedAMPMMthiscanproduceconfusionwiththeabbreviationAMforAnnoMundiseeabovesothebestpolicyistoincludethefullstops.Morningafternooneveningnightandoclockshouldnotbeusedalongwitha.m.orp.m.either8.30a.m.oreightthirtyinthemorningiscorrectandsimilarlyeither6.00p.m.orsixoclockintheeveningiscorrect.Astheseexamplesshowtheabbreviationshouldfollowthetimeindicatedandaspaceshouldbeusedbetweenthenumeralandtheabbreviation.Itisacceptabletousethisabbreviationinthemainrunningtextofapaper.vversoontheturned.AlmostalwayssetinromanfontthisabbreviationisderivedfrominversofolioontheturnedleafandusedinprintingandmanuscriptstudiestorefertothebackorCHAPTER5 257secondpageofafolio.Itisusedprimarilyinreferencesimmediatelyafterthefolionumberwithoutinterveningspacefol.72vsometimesinasuperscriptfontfol.72vandisacceptableinbothparentheticalmaterialandthemainrunningtext.Unlikerectoreferencesversoreferencesarealwaysrequired.Whenrectoandorversoreferencesareusedfolionumbersshouldnotbeelided.viz.videlicetnamely.Almostalwayssetinromanfontthisabbreviationhasafunctionsimilartothatofi.e.butisusedmorerarely.Likei.e.itshouldonlybeusedinparenthesesorancillarymaterialsuchasnotesintherunningtextofthemainbodyofapaperequivalentEnglishwordsnamelyoreventhatisinsomecasesarepreferable.Theabbreviationisusuallyprecededbyacommasemicolonorcolonoranopeningparenthesisifitisprovidedinparenthesesandtendstobefollowedbyacommaaswellbutitisofteneitherreplacedwithi.e.orwrittenoutinEnglish.vs.v.versusversus.Thisabbreviationalmostalwaysappearsinromanfontandthevs.formisthemostcommonv.isusedbetweenthenamesofpartiesinlegalcasesbutnoticethatitcanalsomeanverseseethelistofabbreviationsusedinreferencesabove.Asageneralrulevs.shouldnotbeusedintherunningtextinthemainbodyofanarticlewhereversusshouldbeusedinstead.5.3QuotationsPresentationIntegrationandAccuracyAdirectquotationpresentstheexactwordsspokenonaparticularoccasionorwritteninaparticularplaceRitter2005Section9.1justastheopeningofthissentencedoes.NotallacademicandscientificauthorswillmakeuseofdirectquotationwhiledevelopinganargumentbutmanyarticleswillincludeoneorafewquotedCHAPTER5 258passageswhileotherswillfeatureawidevarietyofquotedtextandspeech.Theuseofmostbriefquotationsifproperlyacknowledgedwithreferencesdoesnotrequirespecialpermissionbutifanauthorusesagreatmanyquotationsparticularlyiftheyarelongorifseveralarederivedfromasinglesourceheorshemayneedtoobtainpermissioninordertousethem.Soifthisisthesituationinapaperyoureproofreadingitsagoodideatomentionthispossibilityinacommentjustincasetheauthorisnotawareofitandalsotopointoutanyspecificrequirementsoftherelevantguidelinesifthereareanyregardingpermissionsforquotations.YoumayalsowanttoconsultorrefertheauthortomoredetailedinformationoncopyrightandtheneedforpermissionsifsoChapter4oftheChicagoManualofStyle2003andSections3.7.1and3.7.2ofButcheretal.2006areexcellentplacestostart.ThesectionsthatfollowfocusonthepracticesandconventionsassociatedwithquotingsourcesineffectiveandscholarlywaysinformalEnglishprosebeginningwiththemostpracticalaspectsofpresentingquotedmaterialnamelylayingitoutonthepageandprovidingthenecessaryreferencestothesourcesquoted.5.3.1FormattingandAcknowledgingQuotationsTherearetwomainwaystopresentquotedmaterialinscholarlyproseitcanbeformattedasrun-onorrun-inquotationsthatareembeddedintheauthorsmaintextoritcanbelaidoutasdisplayedorblockquotationsthataresetofffromtheauthorstext.Shortprosequotationsparticularlythoseoflessthanasinglesentencearegenerallyembeddedintheauthorstextwhichmeansthattheybecomeapartoftheauthorsownsentencesandparagraphs.TheythereforeappearinthesamefontsizeasthesurroundingtextandareenclosedinquotationmarksOurresultsdidnotshowtheCHAPTER5 259significanteffectoftimeofdayTaylor2009p.66revealedintheearlierstudy.SinglequotationmarksasIuseinthisbookordoublequotationmarkscanbeusedbutthesametypemustbeusedtomarkallquotationsinapaper.SinglequotationmarkstendtobeusedinBritishEnglishanddoublequotationmarksinAmericanEnglishbutwhilesomepublishersstillobservethisdistinctiontheinstructionsandexamplesprovidedbyjournalguidelineswilloftenindicatetheuseofdoublequotationmarksalthoughtheguidelinesalsorequestBritishEnglishorsinglequotationmarksalthoughtheyaskforAmericanEnglish.IftheguidelinesprovidedgiveanyindicationofthekindofquotationmarksdesiredsomewillnotitshouldbefollowedotherwisetheauthorspredominantusagecanberetainedandimprovedbutiftheauthorsusageisinconsistentyoumaywanttopreferonetypeofmarkovertheotherbasedonwhetherBritishorAmericanEnglishisrequiredorused.WhichevertypeofquotationmarkisadoptedforembeddedquotationstheoppositetypewillbeneededtoencloseanyquotationsthatappearwithinquotationsasdoublequotationmarksareusedtoenclosethewordnoveltyaquotewithinaquoteinthefollowingsentenceOurresultsdidnotshowthesignificanteffectoftimeofdaythatcameasasurprisetoTaylorduetoitsnoveltyintrialsofthiskind2009p.66.Werethemainquotationenclosedindoublequotationmarksinsteadthewordnoveltywouldbemarkedbysinglequotationmarks.Inbothcasesthepatternofalternationcontinuesifthereisbychanceaquotewithinaquotewithinaquotesinglemarksforthemainquotewithdoublemarksenclosingthequotewithinitandareturntosinglemarkstoenclosethequotewithinthatordoublemarksforthemainquotewithsinglemarksenclosingthequotewithinitandareturntodoublemarkstoenclosethequotewithinthat.ThetwotypescouldtheoreticallyalternateindefinitelytoprovidemanylayersofquotationbutitisCHAPTER5 260rarethatmorethanthreelayersareusedandfortunatelysosinceerrorsoftencreepintothelayereduseofquotationmarkswhichrequiresespeciallycarefulchecking.Aproofreadercannotinmostcasescomparequotedpassageswiththeirsourcestobesurethatquotationsandthequotationswithinthemareaccuratelyrecordedbutintheabsenceofsuchhelpfulaccesstheproofreadercanensurethateachopeningquotationmarkhasamatchingandasmuchascanbedeterminedappropriatelyplacedclosingmarkandthenalerttheauthortoanypotentialproblemssothatheorshecancheckthequotationsconcernedagainsttheoriginaltexts.LongerprosequotationsareusuallydisplayedorsetoffasblockquotationsbutexactlywhatlengthquotationsshouldbetojustifysuchtreatmentvariesconsiderablyfromstyletostylethePublicationManualoftheAPAforinstancenotesthatprosequotationsof40wordsormoreshouldbedisplayedasblockquotations2010pp.92171whileNewHartsRulesspecifiesquotationsof50wordsormoreforthistreatmentRitter2005Section9.2.1ButchersCopy-Editingclaimsthatitisusualtosetoffquotationsof60wordsormoreButcheretal.2006p.269andtheChicagoManualofStylecallsforablockformatforquotationsof100wordsormore2003p.447.IftheauthorisusingoneofthesestylesorfollowingguidelinesthatprovideasimilarlengththresholdthedecisionaboutwhentodisplayaquotationwillbealittleeasierbutallfourofthestylemanualsIvecitedherepointoutthatthereisnofirmruleandmentionalternatecriteriathatcouldbeusedfordeterminingtheformatofquotations.AnauthormightforexamplechoosetodisplayashortquotationthatiscentraltotheargumentorembedalongquotationinordertocommentonpartsofitinmoredetailheorshemightdecidetodisplayaseriesofquotationsofvaryinglengthinordertohighlightthemandfacilitatecomparisonortoembedthesameseriesofquotationstomaketheCHAPTER5 261textmorereadableorheorshemightembedquotationsthatarecentraltotheargumentofapaperbutdisplaythosecitedasexamplesorillustrations.Soitisimportanttodetermineexactlywhatcriteriaifanyhavebeenusedtodecideupontheformatofquotationsbeforeconvertingembeddedquotationstoblockquotationsandviceversaandiftheauthorssystemforquotingproseisforthemostpartclearandeffectiveanddoesnotclashwiththeguidelinesuseditshouldberetainedthoughcommentsonanyanomaliesthatdonotseemconsistentorlogicalareagoodidea.Whenquotationsaredisplayedtheyshouldnotbeenclosedinquotationmarksbuttheyshouldstartonanewlineandtheyoftenfeatureaslightlysmallerfontsizeandorlinespacingthantherestofthepaperaswellasindentationandjustificationsomewhatdifferentfromthatusedelsewhereinthearticle.Iftherelevantstylemanualorguidelinesprovidespecificinstructionsforlayingoutblockquotationstheyshouldbefollowedbutinmostcasesindentationleftorbothleftandrightandasmallerfontsizewillsufficeformarkingdisplayedquotationsuntilmoredetailedformattingisaddedusuallybythepublisheratalaterstage.ThefollowingpassageshowsasimplebuteffectivelayoutfordisplayingprosequotationsSoall-pervasiveishisarchivaldesiretoincludeallhecanthatanyliterarysensitivityhemayhavefelttowardhismaterialbecomesoverwhelmedhemergestextsawkwardlyattimesprovidesanoddalternateendingforMarysvisittoElizabethandsacrificesdramaticintegrityevennarrativecoherenceinfavorofexpansionandinclusiveness.Olson2012p.343SincequotationmarksarenotrequiredaroundtheentirequotationsinglequotationmarksareusedforquotationswithinthequotationwhichresultsinadifferentalternationpatternthanthatforembeddedquotationssinglemarksforquotationswithintheblockquotationdoublemarksforquotationswithinthosequotationsandsoonwithCHAPTER5 262thereversethecaseifdoublemarksarethepredominantmarksusedinapaperdoublemarksforquotationswithinblockquotationssinglemarksforquotationswithinthosequotationsandsoon.Ishouldalsomentionthatquotationmarksaresometimesusedforpurposesotherthanenclosingdirectquotations.Theyareusedforinstancetoenclosethetitlesofarticlespoemsiftheyarebriefsongsshortstorieschaptersindividualepisodesofatelevisionshowandothershortworkswhenthosetitlesappearinthemainrunningtextofapaperinfullbibliographicalreferencesinabibliographyreferencelistornotestheformatofsuchtitlesincludingquotationmarksisdeterminedbythereferencingstyleorguidelinesfollowed.QuotationmarksarealsousedtoencloseexactrepresentationsoftestitemsorquestionsaswellasinstructionsforparticipantsandanyresponsesobtainedfromparticipantswhichislogicalsinceinsuchcasesthewordscitedareinfactquotationsthoughtheymaybeEnglishtranslationsfromanotherlanguageseeSection5.3.4below.Quotationmarkscanalsobeusedtoenclosedefinitionsandotherexplanationsofaforeignwordorphraseanunusualornewlycoinedwordorphraseorawordorphraseusedinaparticularortechnicalwayalthoughtechnicalorkeytermsinapapercaninsteadbeintroducedinitalicfont.Asageneralruleonlythefirstappearanceofsuchwordsorphrasesinanarticleshouldbeenclosedinquotationmarksorsetinitalicfontforthatmattersubsequentmentionsandusesdonotrequirespecialmarkingthoughincertaindiscipline-specificcasessuchascultivarnamesthequotationmarksareretained.Thesameisthecasewhenquotationsareusedforso-calledscareorsneerquoteswhichtendtodistancetheauthorfromthewordorphraseenclosedandimplysomethingofanapologyorqualificationforterminologythatisinformalorcolloquialthatwouldnothavebeentheauthorsownchoiceorthatisusedinoddinappropriateorironicways.SuchwordsandphrasescanbesubtleandvariousbutafewsimpleexamplesmightbehelpfulCHAPTER5 263ThechildrensperformancewascomparedtothatofnormalchildrenOhheisagenerousmanalrightjustlikeEbenezerScroogebeforehemethisghostsandEveryoneknowsthatmodernstudentsaremuchmoreintelligentthantheirmediaevalcounterpartswere.AsageneralrulequotationmarksshouldnotbeusedforsimpleemphasisitalicfontispreferableforthatbutIvecertainlyseenthemusedandusedeffectivelyforthatpurpose.AlthoughsomestyleguideswillrecommendthatthetwodifferenttypesofquotationmarkssingleanddoublenotbeusedfordifferenttasksbeyonddoublemarkswithinsingleonessinglemarkswithindoubleandsoonwarningofaresultmoreconfusingthanhelpfulButcheretal.2006p.271itisnonethelessimportantfortheauthortodistinguishbetweenquotationmarksusedfordirectquotationandotherpurposesinordertoavoidconfusionsoifthisdistinctionisnotclearinapaperyoureproofreadingyoumaywanttonotifytheauthorofthepotentialconfusionandrecommendthatmoreexplanationbeofferedorthatquotationmarksusedforexamplearoundunfamiliarortechnicalwordsorphrasesbedifferentfromthoseusedfordirectquotation.Whenquotingmorethanasinglelineofpoetryoranytextlongorshortforwhichretainingtheexactformatoftheoriginalisimportantsuchasletterslistschunksofplaysandinterviewsandwhenquotingprosepassagesofmorethanasingleparagraphdisplayingthequotationisalmostalwaysamuchbetterchoicethanembeddingit.HereforinstanceisapassageoftheMiddleEnglishpoemPiersPlowmanB-TextformattedasablockquotationForifheuenebeonisereandesetoanysouleItisincloistreorinscolebymanyeskilesIfynde.ForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerne.KaneDonaldson1975X.305308CHAPTER5 264Noticethatthelinesareindentedinsuchawaythatthelongestlineismoreorlesscentredonthepagealthougheachlinestartsinthesamepositionattheleftandthepassageisformattedtorepresentthelayoutofthepoeminthesourcetext.IfthepoemsindentationvariesinthesourcethisshouldberepresentedbyextraindentationintheformatoftheblockquotationifanylinesaretoolongtofitonasinglelineintheblockquotationandthusrunoverontothenextlinetherunoverlineshouldbeindentedaspaceortwobeyondthemaximumindentationifanyquotationsappearwithinthequotedlinestheyshouldbeenclosedinquotationmarksexactlyastheyareinproseblockquotationsandifthequotationbeginspartwaythroughalineaspacerepresentingthelengthoftheomittedmaterialshouldbeinsertedbeforethequotationcomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerne.KaneDonaldson1975X.307308ThelayoutofaletterorlistthedialogueofaplayincludingspeakertagsandstagedirectionsandthebreaksbetweenparagraphsinalongprosequotationcanbereproducedinsimilarwaysinthelayoutofablockquotationINTERVIEWERWereyouabletofindallthelettersquicklyRESPONDENTMostofthembutafewweretricky.INTERVIEWERDoyourememberwhichonesIftwoormoreblockquotationsappearoneaftertheotherhowevermakesurethatthespacingbetweenthemleavesnoambiguityaboutwhereonequotationendsandthenextbegins.Itshouldalsobemadeclearviaindentationorspacingorthelackthereofiftheparagraphbeforeablockquotationcontinuesafterthequotationorifanewparagraphbegins.AlthoughembeddingsuchcarefullyformattedquotationsshouldbeavoidedifatallpossiblethereareinstanceswheremorethanoneCHAPTER5 265lineofpoetrymorethanoneparagraphofproseorpartsofaletterlistorplaywillbeorwillneedtobequotedwithintheauthorsownparagraphs.Insuchcasestheoriginalformattingshouldberepresentedasaccuratelyaspossiblewhilemaintainingatidypagelayout.ForlinesofpoetryforinstancethefontshouldbethesamesizeasthemaintextcapitalisationshouldberetainedandlinebreaksshouldbemarkedbyeitheraforwardslashorverticallinedependingonguidelinesandauthorpreferenceswithaspaceoneithersideasinthefollowingexampleForifheuenebeonisereandesetoanysouleItisincloistreorinscolebymanyeskilesIfynde.ForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerneKaneDonaldson1975X.305308.Whenaquotationofmorethanoneparagraphisembeddedquotationmarksshouldappearatthebeginningofthequotationandatthebeginningofeachnewparagraphbutonlyattheendofthefinalparagraphortheendofthequotationifthefinalparagraphisnotquotedinitsentirety.Thesameapproachshouldbeusedwhenquotingdialogueinwhichasinglespeakerswordsextendovermorethanoneparagraph.RepresentingliststhedialogueinplaysalongwithstagedirectionsandthequestionsandanswersininterviewsasembeddedquotationswillbealittlemorechallenginganditisalwaysbesttoreformatthemasblockquotationsifatallpossiblebutshortpassagesofthiskindcanbesuccessfulifnotidealwhencarefulandcreativeformattingisusedINTERVIEWERWereyouabletofindallthelettersquicklyRESPONDENTMostofthembutafewweretricky.INTERVIEWERDoyourememberwhichonesHereIhavenotusedquotationmarksaroundtheactualspeechofthetwopartieswhichisanacceptableapproachforsuchdialoguewhenquotingaplayaswellwhetheritisembeddedordisplayedbuttheadditionalquotationmarkscancertainlybeaddedaroundthosebitsofdirectspeechtoavoidconfusionwhenusinganembeddedformatCHAPTER5 266WILLWheredidshegoROBlookingfromsidetosideShewasjusthere.WILLlookingupandpointingShesthere.Embeddingquotationsofthiskindmaybeparticularlynecessaryinfootnotesandendnotesbecausethefontusedinnotesisusuallysmallerthanthatinthemaintextwhichmeansthatblockquotationsbecomesmallerstillsoevenlongquotationswithcomplicatedformattingareoftenembeddedinnotes.Whethermaterialdirectlyquotedinapaperisembeddedordisplayeditrequiresareferencethatleadsthereadernotonlytothesourcefromwhichthepassagehasbeenquotedbutalsotothepreciseplaceinthatsourcewherethequotedpassagecanbefound.Thismeansthatareferenceinwhateverstyleisusedelsewhereinthepaperauthordatenumericalorin-noteseeChapter3abovemustbeprovidedalongwithapagenumberoranothertypeoflocatorifrelevantsuchaslinestanzacantopassuscolumnbookandvolumenumbers.FortheblockquotationfromOlsonaboveforexampleapagenumberisprovidedwhereaspassusandlinenumbersarerecordedforthequotationsfromPiersPlowman.WhenthequotationisembeddedinthemaintextthisinformationcanbesetinparenthesesbeforetotheleftoftheclosingpunctuationofthesentenceasauthordatecitationsusuallyarethisisthepositionofthesourceinformationintheembeddedquotationfromPiersPlowmanintheprecedingparagraph.IfinformationaboutthesourceisprovidedinanoteorvianumericalreferencinghoweverthenumberisnormallynotalwayssetoutsidetotherightofthefullstopasitisinthisexampleForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerne.1ToavoidcreatingalargenumberofnotescontainingonlyshortpageorlinereferenceswhenmanyquotationsareusedanexplanationoftheauthorsreferencingpracticecanbeofferedinthefirstnotewithwordingsuchasthisAllquotationsfromPiersCHAPTER5 267Plowmanarefromthiseditionandarereferredtohereafterbypassusandlinenumbersonly.AslongasitremainsclearwhichtextisquotedallsubsequentreferencestothepoemcanbeprovidedparentheticallyinthetextavoidingexcessivenotesandlongparentheticalreferencesasisthecasehereForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerneX.307308.WhenthequotationisdisplayedthesameinformationisrequiredbuttheparentheticalreferenceispositionedalittledifferentlyaftertheclosingpunctuationoftheblockquotationforinstanceandusuallyorientedtotherightonthelinedirectlybelowthequotationasitappearsintheblockquotationsIveprovidedabove.IfthereisroomforthereferenceonthefinallineofthequotationthatisusuallyanacceptablepositionaswellandcertainlyitisonthatlineimmediatelyaftertheclosingpunctuationoftheblockquotationthatanotenumberornumericalreferencewouldappearinsteadifthatisthesystemusedbytheauthorForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerne.1Aswithembeddedquotationsanexplanationoftheauthorsreferencingpracticecanbeusedinthefirstnotetofacilitateshorterreferencesandavoidnumerousnotesifthesametextisquotedfrequentlyandasageneralruleregardlessofwhichquotationformatorsystemofreferencingisusedsubsequentreferencestothesametextcanbeshortenedtoprovideonlytheinformationabsolutelynecessaryforthereadertolocatethequotationaccurately.IfforexampletheauthorisdiscussingLanglandforseveralparagraphsandquotesrepeatedlyfromthesametextitisnotnecessarytoidentifytheauthorpoemeditorsandpublicationdatewitheachquotationunlessitisunclearwhichtextisbeingcitedonlyifadifferentauthorortextorperhapsadifferenteditionorversionofthepoemisquotedCHAPTER5 268inthemidstofthediscussionwouldafullreferenceberequiredtoreorientthereader.Shorteningreferencestoabareminimumisnotedasdesirableinmoststyleguidesbutifthereissimplynotenoughinformationprovidedandyoufindyourselfunsureaboutexactlywhattheauthorisquotingitislikelythatotherreaderswillfeelthesamewaysoinsuchcasesitsagoodideatoinformtheauthorthatalittlemoreinformationwouldbehelpful.Itsalsogoodtocheckanypagenumberscitedagainstthoseprovidedinthefullbibliographicalreferencesiftheyvebeenincludedwiththepapertobesuretheyreatleastclosetoaccuratee.g.p.262cannotbeacorrectreferencetoanarticlethatappearsonpp.246259andtowatchforanyreferencestopoeticlinesthataremanifestlywrongi.e.fourpoeticlinescannotbelines114118becausethatindicatesfivelines.5.3.2IntegratingQuotationsPunctuationSentenceStructureandArgumentAlthoughtheoccasionalpaperwillgiveyoutheimpressionthattheauthorbelievesitsufficientsimplytoslapquotationsdownonthepageforreaderstounderstandtheirrelevancetohisorherresearchmostacademicandscientificauthorsrealisethatagooddealmoregoesintoquotingsourceseffectivelyinordertoillustratesupportanddevelopanargument.UsingquotationswellintermsofboththelogicofanarticleandthesyntaxofitssentencesisnoeasytaskhoweverbutonethatposesseriouschallengesevenforthosewhoarecompletelyfamiliarwiththescholarshipmethodsandterminologyassociatedwiththeirdisciplineandhighlyaccomplishedwritersofEnglishprose.ForthosewhoarealreadystrugglingwiththeconstructionofEnglishsentencesandperhapsalsostrugglingwithtranslatingtheirsourcetextsintoEnglishseeSection5.3.4belowasforthosejustbecomingacquaintedwiththeintricatedetailsofpreviousscholarshipandtheirCHAPTER5 269ownresearchitcanbeakintoanightmaresoagreatmanyproblemscanariseintheintegrationofquotationsintoanacademicorscientificarticle.Thewayinwhichanyquotationsusedinapaperrelatetothesurroundingtextbothsyntacticallyandlogicallythereforerequiresthecarefulattentionoftheproofreader.Asanaspectofwrittenstylehoweverintegratingquotationsishighlysubjectiveandtheproblemsassociatedwithitextremelyvarioussoitisimpossibletoaddressallsituationstheproofreadermayencounterandnobookcanreplaceexperience.HereIhavesimplyfocussedoncertainmattersthattendwithconsiderablefrequencytopresentparticularchallengesforacademicandscientificauthors.Thepunctuationusedbeforeandafteraquotationisfarmoreimportantthanitmightseem.ItmaynotmattersomuchintermsoflogicwhetherthefullstoporcommathatfollowsaquotationisplacedinsidetheclosingquotationmarkpredominantinAmericanEnglishandinmostfictionandjournalismwhetherAmericanorBritishorsometimesinsideandsometimesoutsideitdependingonthenatureofthequotationinrelationtothestructureoftheentiresentencepredominantinBritishEnglishseeforinstanceButcheretal.2006Section11.1.2andRitter2005Section9.2.3fordetailsthoughiftheguidelinesindicatewheresuchfullstopsandcommasshouldappearitisasignificantissueandtheguidelinesshouldbefollowed.Itisessentialhoweverthatthenormalandcorrectpunctuationofsentencesbemaintainedasquotationsareused.Sosomeformofclosingpunctuationisnecessarytofinishasentencejustasitwouldbewerenoquotationinvolvedwhileacommatoenablethecontinuationofasentencemayberequiredifthesentencecontinuespastthequotationandbothpiecesofpunctuationshouldbepositionedinamannerconsistentwiththesystemusedthroughoutthepaper.ColonssemicolonsdashesandparenthesesontheotherhandnormallyappearoutsideclosingquotationmarksunlesstheyCHAPTER5 270areactuallypresentinthesourceinwhichcasetheycanbeincludedwithinthequotationmarks.ThesameprincipleappliestoquestionandexclamationmarksandwiththesebitsofpunctuationplacementcansignificantlyalterthemeaningofaquotationandthesentencecontainingitnoticeforinstancethedifferencebetweenHeactuallymeantitwhenhesaidSowithoutpatientsthehospitalwouldrunmuchmoresmoothlyandHeactuallymeantitwhenhesaidSowithoutpatientsthehospitalwouldrunmuchmoresmoothlyItmayattimesbedifficulttodeterminewithoutrecoursetothesourceexactlywhereaquestionorexclamationmarkshouldappearbutifanythingseemssuspectaqueryandbriefexplanationcanbeofferedtotheauthorwhocanthenmakeanynecessaryadjustments.Thepunctuationprecedingaquotationcanbeevenmorecrucialthanthatfollowingitbecausesuchintroductorypunctuationhelpsdefinethewayinwhichreadersapproachaquotation.Oftennopunctuationisnecessaryimmediatelybeforeaquotation.ThisisthecasewhenaquotationisembeddedinasentenceandnopunctuationwouldberequiredweretheentiresentencewrittenbytheauthorofthearticleasinthisexampleLanglandoptimisticallyclaimedthatnomanenteredmonasticlifetocarpenetofiteKaneDonaldson1975X.307despitethebickeringwithincloisterwallsthatotherpartsofhispoemsobrilliantlydramatise.ThesameprincipleappliestodisplayedquotationssonopunctuationisneededwhenwritingforinstanceLanglandseemstohaveconsideredthecloistersomethingofalargeandfriendlylibrarywherenoonewishestocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerne.KaneDonaldson1975X.307308OftennothingmorethanthefullstopclosingtheprecedingsentenceisrequiredbeforeaquotationembeddedorblockifthelogicofthequotationnaturallyfollowsthatoftheprecedingsentenceandcanCHAPTER5 271startoralreadyisasentenceofitsown.ThefollowingtwosentencesprovideanexampleWilliamLanglandsviewofthecloisteredlifeasbuxomnesse...andbokestoredeandtolerneKaneDonaldson1975X.308maywellbeagooddealmoreidealisedthanhehimselfbelievedpossible.YetforthemostpartmonasteriesmustindeedhavebeenamongthefinestofplacestoredeandtolerneinlatemedievalEnglandandforpreciselythereasonsLanglandprioritizesbooksinnumbersandofavarietymodernreadersmightfindsurprisingandforthemostparttheintellectualpeacetosavorthem.Olson2012p.291Manyquotationsrequireprecedingpunctuationhoweverandinalargenumberofcasesacommaoracolonservesthepurpose.Acommaisusedwithavarietyofphrasesthateffectivelyintroduceanddefinequotationsfrombothwrittentextsanddirectspeechasthefollowingexamplesdemonstrate.Thesecondonecouldeffectivelybesetasablockquotationbeginningimmediatelyafterthecommathatprecedestheopeningquotationmarkparticularlyifitweretoextendtofurtherquotedsentencesthethirdwouldstandoutnicelyinadisplayedformataswellandthefourthcouldbepartiallysetasablockquotationbydisplayingalltextfollowingthesecondcomma.AccordingtoOlson2012p.291monasteriesmustindeedhavebeenamongthefinestofplacestoredeandtolerne.InanearlystudyofthisproblemwomenwereshowntorecovermuchmorequicklyandwithfewernegativesideeffectswhentheydidnotreceivechemotherapyaspartoftheirtreatmentTabatha1968p.1698.ParticipantswereaskedinQuestion3ofthesurveyWasthedomesticrobotagoodsizeforuseinyourapartmentWhanthatAprillChaucerwrotewithhisshouressoteThedroghteofMarchehathpercedtotheroteKolveOlson1989GeneralPrologue12.CHAPTER5 272Thefirstintervieweeaself-confesseddevoteeofallthingshockeyhelpedmerefinethequestionsbeforeIconductedfurtherinterviews.FrostinJuneheinsistedisunheardof.NotinNewfoundlandshereplied.InmanycaseshoweverandparticularlyinformalEnglishacolonismoreappropriatethanacommaandoftenwhenanauthorspunctuationbeforeaquotationisquestionableornonexistentaddingacolonisagoodsolution.Acolonisoftenusedtointroducescholarlyquotationsandformalspeechitisagoodchoicewhenmorethanonesentenceorpassageisquotedorwhenemphasisisrequiredanditalsotendstoclarifysentencestructureandthelinebetweentheauthorstextandquotedpassagesandthereforetoimprovethegenerallegibilityanduser-friendlinessofatext.Thefollowingexamplesshowcolonsusedtointroducequotations.Thefirsttwowouldbebestsetasblockquotationsandadisplayedformatwouldalsobeappropriateforthethirdexampleforthefourthexampleadisplayedformatwouldhighlightthetwoquestionsandfurtherquestionscouldeasilyfollowthefifthmightalsobesetasablockquotationespeciallyifthequotedtextwereextended.Langlandsviewofthecloistersmacksofidealismbutitalsocontainspreciousallusionstofourteenth-centurymonasticbookcollectionsForincloistrecomenomantocarpenetofiteButalisbuxomnesseereandbokestoredeandtolerneX.307308.ThefollowingisatranscriptionoftheexchangeINTERVIEWERWereyouabletofindallthelettersquicklyRESPONDENTMostofthembutafewweretricky.INTERVIEWERDoyourememberwhichonesTakinghercuefromPiersPlowmanOlsondescribescloisterlibrariesinthiswayforthemostpartmonasteriesmustindeedCHAPTER5 273havebeenamongthefinestofplacestoredeandtolerneinlatemedievalEnglandandforpreciselythereasonsLanglandprioritizesbooksinnumbersandofavarietymodernreadersmightfindsurprisingandforthemostparttheintellectualpeacetosavorthem2012p.291.InQuestion3ofthesurveyparticipantswereaskedWasthedomesticrobotagoodsizeforuseinyourapartmentQuestion4attemptedtorefineourunderstandingofanylimitationsperceivedWasthereanytaskthedomesticrobotwasnotabletoaccomplishduetoitssizeTheresultsobtainedinanearlystudyofthisproblemareofinterestwomenwereshowntorecovermuchmorequicklyandwithfewernegativesideeffectswhentheydidnotreceivechemotherapyaspartoftheirtreatmentTabatha1968p.1698.SmithandJones1996reportedthreecoloursofparticularinterestanddidsoinlanguagethatisequallyinterestingvibrantpurplefluorescentorangeandgrowing-as-you-watchgreen.AlistofrootsandvegetablessuitableforthisregionfollowspotatoesturnipsradishescarrotscabbageBrusselssproutsbroccolicauliflowerinagoodyearandbeansGreen1987p.26.TaylorretortedWellifyouregoingtobethatwayaboutitIwontlookitupatall.NowhushIneedtoconcentrate.InallofthequotationexamplesIprovideabovethequotationshavebeenintegratedintothestructureofasentenceoraparagraphusingcorrectsyntaxandgrammarandeffectivepunctuationisonlypartofthisprocess.Eachauthorwillhavehisorherownwaysofworkingquotationsintothestructureandlogicofapaperanditsargumentsoproblemsanddetailswillvaryconsiderablyfromarticletoarticlewitheachpresentingitsownparticularchallengesfortheproofreader.CHAPTER5 274Guidelinesiftheycommentonquotationpracticeswillalsoplayapartoccasionallyforinstanceguidelineswillrequestthatquotationsbepresentedinasintactaformaspossibleandintroducedverysimplyblockquotationsintroducedwithcolonsareagoodchoiceformeetingsuchrequirementswhileotherswillallowauthorsmorefreedominbreakingquotationsintoseparatewordsandphrasesinordertoincorporatethesefragmentsborrowedfromsourcesvirtuallyseamlesslyintotheirownsentences.Thislattermethodproducesmorevarietyandenablesanauthortousequotationsveryselectivelyandpreciselyindevelopinghisorherownargumentbutspecialcaremustbetakentoensurethatallaspectsoftheauthorslanguageinsuchsentencesfunctioneffectivelywiththelanguagequoted.OfparticularconcernarepronounsandverbtensewhichasdiscussedinSection5.1.1aboveoftenproveproblematicevenwithoutthecomplicationofquotingpassagesthatmayuseverbtensesandpronounsthatdonotagreewiththeauthorsvoiceandotherelementsofhisorhersentence.ForexampleletssayanauthorwantstoquoteLanglandspassageaboutcloistersandtheirlibrariesbutalsowantstousethepasttenseinsteadofLanglandspresentandtoavoidthefirst-personpronounIwhichwontmakesensecomingfromtheauthorspen.ToachievethistheauthorwillneedtoselectthewordstoquotecarefullystructuringthesentencetoexpresshisorherownintentionswhileretainingLanglandsoriginalwordingandmeaning.DependingontheprecisemeaningintendedoneofthefollowingsentencesoranothersimilarconstructionmightproveeffectiveIftherewasanysortofheavenonearthinthefourteenthcenturyitwasaccordingtoLanglandfoundincloistreorinscolenomanhearguedenteredamonasterychockfullofbokesandlearningopportunitiessimplytocarpeorfiteKaneDonaldson1975X.306308.CHAPTER5 275LanglanddescribedmonasticlifeinthefourteenthcenturyinidealistictermsclaimingthatnomancametothecloistertocarpeorfiteandinsistingdespiteotherpassagesofPiersPlowmantothecontrarythatthemonasterywasaplaceofbuxomnesse...andbokeswhereapersonsdesiretoredeandtolernecouldbefulfilledKaneDonaldson1975X.306308.ViahismanyskileshisownschoolingandhisnodoubtfrequentvisitstomonasticbookcollectionswhilewritingPiersPlowmanLanglandenjoyedapositiveperspectiveofthecloistreasasettingnotonlyfreefromconflictbutalsoblessedwithbuxomnesse...andbokesandampleopportunitiestoredeandtolerneKaneDonaldson1975X.306308.Theroleoftheproofreaderistochecksuchquotation-richsentenceswithaneyetoagreementbetweentheauthorsproseandtheintegratedquotationsadjustingtheauthorswordingwherevernecessaryoradvisingtheauthortodosotoestablishaneffectiveoverallsentencestructure.5.3.3AccuracyandAlterationsinQuotedMaterialItisimpossibletooveremphasizetheimportanceofmeticulousaccuracyinquotingfromtheworksofothersChicagoManualofStyle2003p.445.Whenanauthorusesquotationmarksorablockquotationformatandprovidesareferenceheorsheisclaimingthatthewordswithinthequotationmarksorblockquotationrepresentexactlythewordsnormallyalongwiththeirpunctuationcapitalisationandthelikethatcanbefoundinthepreciseplaceindicatedthefirstsentenceofthisparagraphforinstanceonp.445oftheeditionoftheChicagoManualofStylelistedinthereferencelistattheendofthisbook.IftheauthorstranscriptionofthequotationisincorrectheorCHAPTER5 276sheisfalselyattributingwordsandthoughtstoanotherauthorandnoauthortheonequotingortheonequotedwouldwantthat.TheproblemishoweverthaterrorsslipintotranscriptionswithfrighteningeaseevenwhenanauthoriscarefulforexampleIfirsttypedoverestimateinsteadofoveremphasizeinthequotationthatopensthisparagraphandthenItypedoveremphasiseanautomaticreflexbecauseImusingBritishspellinginthisbookandhadtochangethestoaz.Whenanauthordoesnottranscribewithcarequotationscanbecomesomethingofadisasterzonethatunderminesanargumentviatheverymaterialthatshouldshoreitup.Unfortunatelytheproofreaderoftendoesnothaveaccesstomanyoftheauthorssourcessocheckingtheaccuracyofeachquotationevenweretimeandfundingallottedforthisisnotusuallypossible.Therearehoweverafewapproachesaproofreadercanusetohelptheauthorensuretheaccuracyofquotedmaterialandallofthemshouldbeaccompaniedbyacommentexplaininganypotentialproblemsandanychangesthathavebeenmadeundernocircumstancesshouldchangesbemadetoquotationswithoutinformingtheauthor.ForonetheproofreadershouldwatchcarefullyforwhatseemerrorsinquotationssuchasobviousspellingmistakesincludingBritishspellinginAmericansourcesandviceversaunconventionalorunlikelyinstancesofpunctuationormissingpunctuationandsectionsoftextthatsimplydontmakesenseforonereasonoranothermissingwordsespeciallyshortwordsandverbsofanincorrecttenseornumberareparticularlycommon.Errorsthatarebothminorandcompletelyobviouscanbecorrectedbutonlyiftheauthorisalsoinformedofthecorrectioninacommentsothatthepassagecanbecheckedifheorshesowishes.AnythingdubiousorincorrectthatcantbecorrectedwithoutrecoursetotheoriginalshouldbebroughttotheauthorsattentionCHAPTER5 277alongwiththeadvicethatthequotationshouldbecheckedagainstthesourceandcorrectedifnecessary.Iftherelevantsourcescanbefoundpassagesthathaveorhintatpotentialproblemsaregoodcandidatesforspot-checkingwhichisthesecondapproachtheproofreadercanusewhendealingwithquotations.Anyquotationsforwhichthesourcesarereadilyaccessiblewillserveforspot-checkinghoweverandoftencheckingonlyacoupleorafewquotationswillgiveyouagoodideaofhowaccuratetheauthorstranscriptionstendtobe.Ifyoufindproblemsinseveralquotationsorevenseveralproblemsinacoupleofquotationsacommentadvisingtheauthortocheckallquotationsinthepapercarefullyagainsttheirsourcesisinorder.Someauthorswillrepeatquotationsorsectionsofquotationswhilecommentingforinstanceoncertainwordsoraspectsofalongerpassagealreadyquoted.Thisprovidesanexcellentopportunitytouseathirdapproachforcheckingquotationscomparingthetwoinstancesofthesamequotedwordsforconsistency.Ifdiscrepanciesarefoundtheycanbecorrectedwithacommentifitsclearwhichversionisaccuratebuttheauthorwillhavetomakethechangesifthecorrectversioncannotbedeterminedwithoutrecoursetoanunavailablesource.Ifanauthorissoinconsistentinrepeatingwhatheorsheseemstoclaimarethesamequotedwordsasituationthatdoesarisethoughrarelyitmaybeappropriatetoaddakind-spiritedcommentexplainingbrieflywhatdirectquotationactuallymeans.Theneedforaccuracyinquotationsdoesnotmeanthatalterationscannotbemadetopassagesquotedinanacademicorscientificpaperbutanychangesthatmustbemadeshouldbekepttoanabsoluteminimumandalthoughcertainminoralterationscanbedonewithoutanyspecialmarkingorindicationmostchangestoquotedmaterialmustbeacknowledgedandinveryparticularways.WhileanauthormightavoidminorbutobviouserrorsinasourcetextCHAPTER5 278byparaphrasinginsteadofquotingititisalsopermissibleforinstancefortheauthortocorrectminorerrorssuchasspellingunclosedquotationmarksorparenthesesandamissingfullstopsilentlywhichistosaywithoutacknowledgingthechange.TheproofreadershouldbeawareofthisandmightevenmakesuchcorrectionsfortheauthorprovidedacommentflagsthembutitisessentialtoensurebeforeimposinganycorrectionsthattheidiosyncrasiesofthequotationarenotduetothesourcetextbeinganearlyworkoramanuscriptfromwhicharchaicspellingandletterformssuchasthoseinthequotationsfromPiersPlowmanaboveareoftenretainedseebelowforsomeexceptions.AlternativelytheLatinwordsicmeaningthussoorinthismannercanbeusedinsquarebracketswhicharediscussedbelowimmediatelyaftertheerrororodditythoughthisisusuallyonlydoneiftheerrormightmisleadreadersasthewrongcathedralnameinthisexamplemightLanglandmusthaveaccessedthebookcollectionatWinchestersicCathedral.AnotheroptionistoaddeitherrecteLatinforproperlyorcorrectlyorrectiusmoreproperlyormorecorrectlyortheEnglishequivalentofeitherinsquarebracketsimmediatelyaftertheproblemandincludeacorrectalternativeLanglandmusthaveaccessedthebookcollectionatWinchesterrecteWorcesterCathedral.Otherchangescanbemadewithinaquotationnottocorrecterrorsinthesourcebuttoallowthequotedmaterialtofitsyntacticallytypographicallyandlogicallyintothesurroundingtext.Alterationstosomeelementscanbemadewithoutprovidinganindicationofthechangeinthequotation.AlistofthesefollowsQuotationmarkssinglequotationmarkscanbechangedtodoublemarksanddoublemarkstosinglemarksinordertocorrespondwiththetypeofquotationmarksusedinapaperandtorepresentthelayersofquotationaccurately.ForeignformsofCHAPTER5 279quotationmarkssuchasandshouldalsobechangedtomatchtheformsusedelsewhereinthepaper.Otherpunctuationafullstoporcommaattheendofaquotationcanbechangedtoacommaorfullstopasrequiredbythesurroundingsyntax.Foreignformsofpunctuationsuchasinvertedexclamationandquestionmarksandaswellasothervariationsinpunctuationsuchasdashesenandemandhyphensuseddifferentlythantheyareinthepapercanbeadjustedtomatchtheformsusedinthesurroundingtext.Symbolsandabbreviationsorthographicsignssuchastheampersandandabbreviationscanberetainedinaquotationbutalternativelytheycanbeexpandedforclarityorconsistencywiththesurroundingtext.Initiallettersacapitalatthebeginningofaquotationcanbechangedtoalowercaseletterandalowercaseletterinthesamepositioncanbechangedtoacapitalinordertointegratethequotationintothesurroundingtextthoughinsomestylesthischangeshouldbemadewithinsquarebracketsseebelow.Ifaquotationisembeddedinthesyntaxofasentenceitshouldnormallybeginwithalowercaseletterifitisformattedasablockquotationitcanbeginwithalowercaseoruppercaseletterdependingonwhetheritisacontinuationofthesentenceintroducingitorbeginsanewsentencebutthefirstlineofaversequotationshouldalwaysbeginwithacapitalifthatiswhatappearsintheoriginalpoem.InBritishEnglishalowercaselettertendstobeusedafteracolonintroducingaquotationwhereasinAmericanEnglishanuppercaseletterisusedinthispositionifthequotationformsacompletesentence.Notesandnoteindicatorsinthesourcemaybeomittedinaquotationiftheyareunnecessarytothesenseiftheyarerequiredthequotationwillbebestasablockquotationwiththerelevantnotesincludedbelowthemainquotation.AnauthorCHAPTER5 280mayalsoaddhisorherownnotestoaquotation.ArchaicandidiosyncraticspellingandletterformsthearchaicspellingaswellasthespecialcharactersusedinearlyEnglishtextsshouldberetainedinmostquotationsastheyareintheexamplesfromPiersPlowmanabove.ThelettersusedinOldandMiddleEnglishthatarenolongerusedinmodernEnglishareasfollowsashwhichcanberetainedasaligatureorwrittenastwolettersaeAEeththornwynnandyogh.TheuseofiandjaswellasuandvinearlytextsalsodiffersfromthatinmodernEnglishtextsandalthoughtheseletterscanberetainedaswelltheyareoftenmodernisedandsoisvvbychangingittowandlongbychangingittoashorts.Thesechangesareoftenmadesilentlywithinaquotationbutaproofreadershouldnotintroducesuchmodernisationiftheauthordoesnotandaproofreaderalsoshouldnotimprovetheauthorseffortsinthisregardunlessabsolutelycertainabouttheprocessinsteadtheauthorshouldbeinformedofpossibleinconsistenciesandlefttoadjustthemornotasnecessary.Acommentshouldalsobeofferedifyoususpectthatthissortofmodernisationhastakenplacebutisnotacknowledgedbytheauthorbecausesuchmodernisationofsourcesshouldalwaysbeexplainedsomewhereinthepaperinanoteforinstanceorinthecontextofthefirstrelevantquotation.Anumberofotherchangescanbemadetoquotationstofacilitatetheirusebytheauthorbutthesealterationsmustbeacknowledgedinthequotationitselfwithinterpolationsenclosedinsquarebracketsandomissionsmarkedbyellipsessingularellipsis.InterpolationswithinsquarebracketsmightincludeThewordsictoindicateanerrorinatextorsomethinglikerecteWorcesterasIuseinsquarebracketsabovetoprovidethecorrectword.CHAPTER5 281GlossesanddefinitionsofforeigndifficultorpotentiallymisleadingwordsasinWhanthatAprillwithhisshouressoteshowerssweetThedroghteofMarchehathpercedtotheroterootKolveOlson1989GeneralPrologue12andAmiddle-classfamilymighthaveownedonlyonebookbutthatbookwouldoftenresembleanentirelibraryinparvoinsmallwithitscontentsbothextensiveandextremelyvaried.InsomestylesmodernequivalentsortranslationsofthissortareplacedinparenthesesinsteadseeSection5.3.4below.VariantsfoundinothereditionsversionsormanuscriptsasinManyCambridgeMSFellfawcounsandfaireHawkisofnobillayereCasson1949LincolnMSlines4546.ExplanationsqualificationandothercommentsasinYetforthemostpartmonasteriesoratleastsomeofthemmustindeedhavebeenamongthefinestofplacestoredeandtolerneinlatemedievalEnglandOlson2012p.291.GrammaticalchangesoraddedwordsthatenablebetterintegrationofthequotationanditsmeaningwiththesurroundingtextanddiscussionasinthefollowingexamplewherethepluralformswereandtheirarereplacedwiththesingularformswasandhisandthewordlessisaddedRogerNewtonverylikelythefirstofthebooksscribeswhosesimilarscriptandlanguagesuggestsharedtrainingwaspaidlessforhisworkOlson2012p.305.Althoughthissortofchangecanbeusedwhennecessaryitisbestifitiskepttoabareminimuminmostcasestheauthorstextshouldbewordedtoworkwiththeunadjustedquotation.Soifthesekindsofchangesaremadefrequentlytothequotationsinapaperacommentalertingtheauthortopossibleoverusecanbehelpful.ChangesthatreplaceaninitialcapitalwithalowercaseletterandviceversashouldinsomestylesseeforinstancetherigorousmethodintheChicagoManualofStyle2003pp.462463andCHAPTER5 282disciplinesandparticularlyinlegalandtextualstudiesbeenclosedinsquarebracketsastheyisinthefollowingsentenceWilliamLanglandsviewofthecloisteredlifeasbuxomnesse...andbokestoredeandtolerneKaneDonaldson1975X.308maywellbeagooddealmoreidealisedthanhehimselfbelievedrealisticyetforthemostpartmonasteriesmustindeedhavebeenamongthefinestofplacestoredeandtolerneinlatemedievalEnglandOlson2012p.291.Formoredetailsoninitialcapitalisationseeabove.CommentsabouttheadditionofitalicstoaquotationshouldbeenclosedinsquarebracketsiftheyappearinthemidstofaquotationastheydohereforinstanceAmiddle-classfamilymighthaveownedonlyonebookitalicsminebutthatbookwouldoftenresembleanentirelibraryinparvoinsmallwithitscontentsbothextensiveandextremelyvaried.Thisindicatesthatonlytheitalicsononebookwereaddedbytheauthorquotingthepassagenottheitalicsoninparvo.WhenontheotherhandalltheitalicsthatappearinaquotationareaddedbytheauthorquotingittheacknowledgementoftheitalicsshouldcomeattheendofthequotationalongwithanyreferenceSmith2006p.34italicsmine.Theacknowledgementcanappearwithalternativewordingitalicsmyownmyitalicsitalicminemyitalicemphasismineandmyemphasisbutthesameformshouldbeusedinallinstancesinasinglepaper.Alternativelyifallitalicsinthequotationsusedinapaperaretheauthorsadditionsthiscanbeexplainedinasinglecommentalongwiththereferenceforthefirstrelevantquotationforexampleitalicshereasinotherquotationsinthisarticlearemyownormorebrieflyallitalicsinquotationsmyownthisinformationwouldalsoworkwellinafootnote.WhileitalicscanbeaddedtocertainwordsandsectionsinaquotationinordertoemphasisethemquotationsshouldnotbeplacedentirelyinitalicswhicharenotCHAPTER5 283neededorcorrectformarkingquotationsinEnglishthatisachievedbyquotationmarksorblockformattingalonesoifanauthorusesitalicsthroughoutaquotationthefontshouldbechangedtoromanandtheauthorinformedortheproblembroughttotheauthorsattentionsothatheorshecanmakethechanges.QuestionmarkswhenaddedasqueriestoexpressdoubtabouttheinformationprovidedinaquotationshouldbeenclosedinsquarebracketsimmediatelyafterthedoubtfulinformationandsomeexplanationmightbeaddedaswellThefiretookplacein2000morelikely2001justbeforeherbirthday.Pleasenotethatanexclamationmarkenclosedinsquarebracketsisneitheraneffectivenoraprofessionalwayinwhichtocommentonaquotationandshouldbeavoided.Itisrelativelycommonforauthorstouseparenthesesinsteadofsquarebracketsforinterpolationsinquotations.Ifitisobviousthatthisisthecaseinapaperyoureproofreadingyoumaywanttochangethemtosquarebracketsbuttheauthorshouldbeinformedoftheadjustmentandifthereisanydoubtastowhetherinterpolationsareindeedintendedtheauthorshouldbealertedtotheproblemsothatheorshecanmakeanychangesthatmaybenecessary.Omissionsmaybemadefromaquotationforanumberofreasonssuchaseliminatingerrorsremovingwordsandpunctuationthatdonotworksyntacticallywiththesurroundingtextandavoidingwordsortechnicaldetailsthatarentnecessarytotheargumentandmightactuallydistractthereaderfromthemainpointstheauthorwantstomakeviathequotation.Inallsuchcasesanellipsisofthreestopsorpointswiththestopseitherseparatedbyspaces...whichistheformatIveemployedinthisbookorclosedupwithoutspacesisusedtoindicatetheomissionbutotherpunctuationCHAPTER5 284sometimesappearsalongwithanellipsisandsometimesnot.ThepracticesforusingellipsesareinfactsurprisinglyvariousandcomplicatedastheChicagoManualofStylesdetaileddescriptionofthreedifferentmethodsthethree-dotmethodthethree-or-four-dotmethodandtherigorousmethodmakesclear2003p.459.ThefirstisthesimplestthesecondarefinementofthefirstandthethirdarefinementofbothandelementsfromeachcanbecombinedtosuittheneedsofaparticularworkorthepreferenceofanauthoraslongasaconsistentpatternismaintainedthroughouttheworkChicagoManualofStyle2003p.459.OtherstyleguidestendtodojustthatusecombinationsofthethreemethodsthatissoinsteadofoutliningherethethreemethodsandvariationsonthemseeinsteadtheChicagoManualofStyle2003pp.459463wherethemethodsarediscussedindetailIvesummarisedthecommonacceptablepracticesandnotedthemostimportantvariationsandexceptions.Iftheomissionrepresentedbyanellipsisiswithinasinglesentencetheellipsisusuallyappearswithoutanyotherpunctuationforthemostpartmonasteriesmustindeedhavebeenamongthefinestofplaces...inlatemedievalEnglandOlson2012p.291.Anyunneededpunctuationisgenerallyomittedalongwiththemissingwordsbutacommacolonorsemicoloncanberetainedfromthesourceifitisneededforsyntaxorreadabilityitshouldappeareitherbeforeoraftertheellipsisdependingonitsplacementintheoriginalpassage.Whenanomissionoccursbetweensentencesorinvolvesmorethanonesentenceinastrictthree-dotmethodonlytheellipsisisnecessarybutaquestionmarkorexclamationmarkshouldberetainedagaineitherbeforeoraftertheellipsisifitisnecessarytothesense.Itisalsocommonusedinthethree-or-four-dotmethodandRitter2005Section9.3.3forinstancetoincludeafullstopifthesentenceprecedingtheellipsisendsCHAPTER5 285inafullstoporiftheellipsismarkstheomissionofoneormoresentencesthefullstopshouldappearupagainsttheprecedingsentencejustasanormalfullstopwouldwiththeellipsisfollowingforatotaloffourstops.ThematerialbothbeforeandaftertheomissionshouldreadasfullsentencesevenifwordshavebeenomittedfromthemandthesentencefollowingtheellipsisshouldbeginwithacapitalTherewereanumberofvegetablesIcouldntplantduetothefrost....Illplantthemwhenitwarmsupnextweek.IntherigorousmethodhoweverifthelastpartofthesentencebeforetheellipsisisomittedtheellipsisprecededbyaspaceshouldappearbeforethefullstopTherewereanumberofvegetablesIcouldntplantduetothefrost....Illplantthemwhenitwarmsupnextweek.Noellipsisshouldnormallyappearatthebeginningorendofaquotationbecauseitisunderstoodthatthequotationisanextractandthattextprecedesandfollowsthequotedmaterialinthesource.AnellipsiscanappearattheendofaquotationhoweverifasentencehasdeliberatelybeenleftunfinishedanditsunfinishednatureshouldbeemphasisedtocommunicatetheauthorsmeaningeffectivelyWellInever...Anellipsiscanalsoappearateitherthebeginningortheendofaquotationincertaincontextssuchaslegaltextsandtextualcommentaryinwhichtherigorousmethodisusedandwhentheauthorwantstomakeitclearthatawholeregulationperhapsorawholelineinamanuscripthasnotbeencited.Sinceellipsesaresometimesalsousedtoindicatemissingorillegibletextinaquotedsourceifthattextismissingatthebeginningorendofthequotationanellipsiswillneedtobeused...andtherewasnowaterforweeks.IfanauthorusesellipsestoindicatebothmissingorillegiblepassagesinasourceandhisorherownomissionsfromthequotedtextadistinctionshouldbemadebetweenthemideallybyaddingabracketedcommentCHAPTER5 286aftereachellipsisusedtoindicatemissingorillegibletextintheoriginal...illegibleandtherewasnowaterforweeks.Doubleusageofthiskindisalsobestexplainedeitherparentheticallywiththereferenceforthequotationorinanotewhentheellipsisisfirstusedorthedistinctioncouldbeclarifiedinthemaindiscussionasquotationsareintroduced.Ellipsesshouldnotnormallybeenclosedinsquarebracketssinceanellipsisrepresentsanomissionthereisusuallynoneedtomarkitasanadditionorinterpolationaswell.Howeverifthetextquotedalreadycontainsellipsesandtheauthoralsousesellipsestoindicateomissionsheorshehasmadetheonesaddedbytheauthorshouldbeenclosedinsquarebracketsandifthereisanydoubtastowhythedifferencecanbeexplainedparentheticallywiththereferenceinanoteorinthemaintextwhentheellipsisisfirstused.Whenpoetryisquotedasembeddedtextomissionscanbemarkedinthesamewayastheyareinprosequotations.SimilarlyanellipsisshouldbeusedwhenpartofalineofdisplayedpoetryisomittedForifheuenebeonisere...ItisincloistreorinscolebymanyeskilesIfynde.KaneDonaldson1975X.305306WhenthebeginningofthefirstlineofpoetryquotedisomittedhowevernoellipsisisusedtheomissionisinsteadindicatedbythepositionofthefirstwordofthequotationseethesecondblockquotationfromPiersPlowmaninSection5.3.1above.Whenoneormorewholelinesofpoetryareomittedfromablockquotationafulllineofspaceddotswithoutanytextcanbeusedtomarktheomission.WhenadisplayedquotationcontainsmorethanoneparagraphandtheauthorneedstomarktheomissionofinterveningparagraphsanellipsisshouldbeaddedtotheendoftheCHAPTER5 287paragraphprecedingtheomission.Ifthefirstpartofaparagraphisomittedinablockquotationanormalparagraphindentationshouldbeusedfollowedbyanellipsis.Unfortunatelyunlessyouhaveaccesstotheauthorssourcesandthetimetocheckthemallverycarefullyitsimpossibletobecertaininmanyinstancesexactlywhattheauthorhasomittedandthuspreciselyhowtheomissionshouldbehandled.Ensuringasmuchasthisispossiblethatconsistencyisobservedinwhatevermethodsandpatternsareusedisessentialhoweverandsotooiswatchingcloselyforanythingthatseemsoddorpotentiallymisleadingsothatitcanbedrawntotheauthorsattention.RememberthataswithotheraspectsofquotationscorrectEnglishsentencestructureandsyntaxmustbeobservedatalltimesandquotationsshouldbelogicallyintegratedintosurroundingtextdespitetheomissions.ItisalsoimportantthatomissionsdonotcompletelyalterorotherwisemisrepresentordistortthemeaningoftheoriginaltheomissionfromtheOlsonquotationinthefirstofthebulleteditemsimmediatelyaboveisquestionableforinstancecompareitsmeaningwiththatofthecompletesentenceinthesecondoftheblockquotationsinSection5.3.2above.Alteredmeaningswillnotalwaysbeeasytodetecteitherbuttheyareworthkeepinginmindandafewspotchecksofsourcesifpossiblecanrevealalotabouttheauthorspractices.Ifpotentialproblemswithomissionsseemfrequentorobscurethemeaningofquotationsandthustheauthorsargumentacommenturgingthatallquotationsinthepaperbecheckedandreconstructedifnecessaryisappropriate.CHAPTER5 2885.3.4QuotingandTranslatingLanguagesOtherthanEnglishWhenquotingmaterialfromlanguagesotherthanmodernEnglishauthorsshouldfollowthesamerulesprinciplesandpracticesaswhenquotingpassagesinEnglishsoallthatIvesaidaboutquotationsaboveapplieshereaswell.TheremayhoweverbespecialcharactersdiacriticsandparticularconventionstofollowforcertainlanguagesformoredetailontheuseofforeignlanguagesinEnglishtextsseeButcheretal.2006Section6.6Appendices57910theChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter10andRitter2005Chapter12.GenerallyspeakinganEnglishproofreaderisneitherexpectednorrequiredtoproofreadpartsofanEnglishpaperthatappearinforeignlanguagesbutitisgoodtoremindtheauthorinacommentthatyouarenotqualifiedtochecksuchlanguagesandyoucancertainlyproofreadandcommentonquotationsinlanguagesotherthanEnglishifyourefamiliarwiththelanguagesconcernedandornoticesomethingaboutaquotationthatseemssuspect.TheassumptionbehindquotingmaterialinlanguagesotherthanEnglishisthatthequotationswillbeunderstoodbytheintendedaudiencewhichmeansthatthosereaderswillneedtobefluentorspecialistsinthelanguagequotedandorthetopicdiscussedinaliterarystudyofaFrenchauthorforinstanceitcanusuallybeassumedthattheauthorsworkswillbeunderstoodintheoriginalandinanarticleaimedatclassiciststhatpassagesinGreekandLatinwillbeaccessibletothosereaders.Theauthorofanarticlewillgenerallybeawareoftheintendedaudiencethoughyoumaynotbegiventhatinformationbutifyouknowthetargetaudienceandthereisanydoubtinyourmindaboutwhetherthemajorityofthosewhoreadthejournaltowhichtheauthorisplanningtosubmitthepaperwillbeabletounderstandthenon-Englishquotationsuseditmaybehelpfultooffertheauthoracommentaskingiftranslationmightbeagoodideainsomeorallinstances.CHAPTER5 289InmanycasesprovidinganEnglishtranslationofapassageinaforeignlanguageismoreappropriatethanquotingtheoriginallanguageandthereisoftennoneedtoincludetheoriginalaswell.TheauthorshouldhoweverinformreadersthattheyarereadingatranslationwhichisusuallydonebyquotingfromareliablepublishedEnglishtranslationandprovidinganappropriatereferenceasageneralruleonlyifanavailabletranslationisunsuitablefortheauthorspurposeinthepapershouldthepassagesbenewlytranslatedforthearticle.Ifnotranslationisavailableorappropriateauthorswillgenerallytranslatetherequiredpassagesthemselvesinwhichcasethepapershouldcontainsomeindicationthatthetranslationistheauthorsown.Manyauthorsdonotbothertoacknowledgetranslationsofquotedpassagesastheirownbutitisnecessaryaswellashelpfultothereaderandcanbedonemosteasilyimmediatelyafteratranslatedquotationbyaddinginparenthesesusuallywiththereferencemytranslationortranslationmine.Ifallofthequotationsfromnon-EnglishtextsusedinapaperhavebeentranslatedbytheauthoranexplanationinconjunctionwiththefirstinstancewhetherwiththeparentheticalreferenceorinafootnotecanexplainthesituationAlltranslationsofquotedpassagesaremyownwouldworkorperhapsUnlessotherwisenotedalltranslationsaremyown.Thisinformationisalsovitalfortheproofreaderbecausetheauthorsowntranslationscanbeadjustedtoconformtothestyleusedelsewhereinthepaperinawaythatdirectquotationscannotbeandtheprecisewordingofapassagetranslatedbytheauthorisalsomoreflexible.SowhiletheproofreaderstillmaynothaveaccesstothesourceheorshecancarefullychecktheEnglishtranslationtobesureitiscorrectandeffectivefixingsmallandobviouserrorshighlightingawkwardpatchesandpotentialmistranslationsandsuggestingvocabularyorphrasingthatmightbepreferabletowhattheauthorhasuseddependingofcourseCHAPTER5 290onwhattheoriginalsayswhichcanbeincrediblyhelpfulformanyauthors.ItisalsoimportanttokeepawatchfuleyeonthesourcecitedforatranslationbecausewhilepreviouslypublishedEnglishtranslationsandtheauthorsnewEnglishtranslationsofforeignlanguagesareacceptableforquotationinscholarlywritingretranslationsarenotforexampleifabookwasoriginallypublishedinEnglishbuttheauthorhasuseditinaSpanishtranslationanyquotationsfromthatbookshouldbefromtheoriginalEnglishnottranslatedbackintoEnglishfromtheSpanishtranslation.Insomearticlesparticularlythoseinwhichlanguageisafocusorquotationsarediscussedindetailtheauthorwillprovideboththeoriginallanguageandtranslations.TherearevariousdifferentwaysofsupplyingthiscombinationtheforeignlanguageorthetranslationmightprecedetheothertheoriginalmightbeprovidedinfullwithonlypartialtranslationsorthetranslationmightbecompletewithonlyoccasionalwordsfromtheoriginaltheoriginalandthetranslationmightbothbeembeddedorsetasblockquotationsoronemightappearinthetextinoneoftheseformswhiletheotherisrelegatedtoanotetranslationsofpoetrymighttaketheformofverseorproseandforquotationsofearlyformsofEnglishamoremodernversionofdifficultwordsmightbeprovidedasglosses.Thefollowingarecommonformatsandpracticesforprovidingforeign-languageandtranslatedquotationsOriginalandtranslationofanentirequotationwhethertheoriginallanguageorthetranslatedversionisprovidedfirstinthetexttheothershouldnormallyfollowandbeenclosedineitherparenthesesorsquarebrackets.GuidelineswillrarelyindicateapreferenceforsquarebracketsorparenthesesinsuchsituationsbutstyleguidesseemtorecommendparenthesesmoreoftenthansquarebracketsasinthefollowingexampleCHAPTER5 291InWatts1912p.462thelinereadsDicebamhaecetflebamamarissimacontritionecordismeiIwassayingthesethingsandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheart.Whensquarebracketsareusedtheytendtobeusedmoreoftenindisplayedquotationswhileparenthesesaretheusualchoiceforthesecondversioninembeddedquotations.OccasionallyaslashwithspacesonbothsidesisusedbetweentheoriginalandtranslatedversionsofaquotationinwhichcasenobracketsarenecessaryDicebamhaecetflebamamarissimacontritionecordismeiIwassayingthesethingsandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheartbutthisisrare.Ifthesecondversioninablockquotationistheoriginallanguageanauthorwillsometimessetitinitalicsinsteadofbracketsandwhilethismaybeacceptablefordistinguishingtheoriginallanguageinsuchsituationsquotationsinanylanguageshouldnotusuallybesetinitalicfont.Ifthesecondversionofaquotationeitheroriginallanguageortranslationispresentedinanoteinsteadofinthemaintextnobracketsareusedinthenoteinsteadthepassageshouldbeplacedinquotationmarks.Originaltranslationandreferenceifasecondversionofaquotationwhetheritstheoriginaloratranslationisneededaswellasaparentheticalreferencetherearefourpossibilities.Thesecondversionofthequotationcanbeprovidedinsquarebracketsandthereferenceinparenthesesbothcanbeprovidedinthesamesetofparentheseswithasemicolonseparatingthetwoeachcanbeprovidedinaseparatesetofparentheseswiththeclosingparenthesisofthefirstbackingontotheopeningoneofthesecondoreitherthesecondversionorthereferencecanbeprovidedinanoteinstead.ThefirstandlastofthesemethodsareprobablythebestintermsofbothclarityandstylewiththefirsttakingthisformDicebamhaecetflebamamarissimacontritionecordismeiIwassayingCHAPTER5 292thesethingsandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheartWatts1912p.462.Entireoriginalortranslationwithpartialtranslationororiginalwheneithertheoriginallanguageorthetranslationofanentirequotationisprovidedalongwithonlycertainwordsofthetranslationororiginalparenthesesorsquarebracketsareusedinsidethemainquotationtoenclosethewordsprovidedfromtheotherversion.ThismethodisalsousedtoprovidemodernequivalentsofOldandMiddleEnglishwords.TheaddedwordsusuallyappearinitalicfontespeciallyiftheyrepresenttheforeignlanguageinwhichcaseitalicsallowtheauthortousethenominativeformofawordfromaninflectedlanguageseeSection4.2.2abovebutromanfontandorquotationmarkscanalsobeusedparticularlyfortranslatedwords.ParenthesesseemtobethemostcommonchoiceforsuchinterpolatedwordswhethertheyareintheoriginallanguageortranslationsIwassayingthesethingshaecandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheartcorWatts1912p.462andparenthesesinsuchsituationshavetheadvantageofdistinguishingtheforeignortranslatedwordsfromotherauthorinterpolationsorcommentsinsquarebrackets.Thoughusedlessfrequentlythanparenthesesforaddingoriginalortranslatedwordssquarebracketsarenonethelessappropriateforthispurposebecausethewordsfromthesecondversionareinterpolatedintothequotationandsuchbracketsareespeciallyappropriateifauthorialcommentsappearalongwiththewordsfromthesecondversion.Ifhoweverthepassagequoteduseseitherparenthesesorsquarebracketsforotherpurposesparenthesesforparentheticalinformationprovidedbytheoriginalauthorforexampleorsquarebracketsforvariantreadingsitwillbeclearestnottousethattypeofbracketforwordsfromtheoriginalortranslationaswell.CHAPTER5 293Quotationmarkswhenquotingandtranslatingforeignlanguagesintheformofblockquotationsinthemaintextofapapernoquotationmarksarenecessaryaroundeithertheoriginalorthetranslation.Ifhoweveroriginalandtranslatedversionsareembeddedintheauthorstextorpresentedinanotequotationmarksshouldbeplacedaroundboth.OftenthequotationmarksenclosethewholestructurewiththeopeningquotationmarkplacedatthebeginningofthefirstversionquotedandtheclosingquotationmarkplacedaftertheclosingparenthesisorbracketsurroundingthesecondversionInWatts1912p.462thelinereadsDicebamhaecetflebamamarissimacontritionecordismeiIwassayingthesethingsandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheart.ThisiscertainlytheformatthatshouldbeadoptedifsquarebracketsareusedtoenclosethesecondversionanditisalsothecasewhenpartialtranslationsoroccasionaloriginalwordsareinterpolatedeitherinparenthesesorsquarebracketsinanembeddedquotationseemyexampleusingthesameLatinpassageintheprecedingbulletedparagraph.WhenhoweveranoriginalversionortranslationfollowstheotherandisenclosedinparenthesestwosetsofquotationmarksaresometimesusedwiththefirstsurroundingthefirstversionandthesecondappearingwithintheparenthesesandenclosingthesecondversionDicebamhaecetflebamamarissimacontritionecordismeiIwassayingthesethingsandweepinginthebitterestcontritionofmyheart.AlthoughitmaybeappropriateinasinglepaperforanauthortouseoneformatforquotingaforeignlanguageinonesituationandadifferentoneinanotherortoprovidemoreoftheoriginalormoreofthetranslationinonecasethaninanotherinordertocommunicateCHAPTER5 294whateverisnecessaryforunderstandingthequotationsconsistencyofstyleandpracticeshouldbeobservedasmuchaspossiblethroughoutapaper.Theconsistentuseofbracketsparenthesesorsquareforthesamepurposesinallquotationspresentedinanarticleisparticularlyimportantforensuringthatthesourceisaccuratelyrepresentedandthatthereaderisabletodeterminewhatisintendedineachcasesotheiruseneedstobecarefullyplannedtoaccommodateallthesituationspresentedbythequotedpassagesandanyremaininganomaliesshouldbecarefullyexplained.Ifyoudetectthatthisisnotthecaseminoradjustmentscanbemadetoimproveasystemthatisverynearlyconsistentaslongasyouaresureaboutwhattheauthorintendsbutifthesystemusedbytheauthorisconfusedorconfusingorifyouareunsureabouttheauthorsintentionsingivensituationsacommentinformingtheauthoroftheinconsistenciesorproblemswillfacilitatehisorherdevelopmentofamoreeffectivesystem.CHAPTER5 295Chapter6TablesFiguresAppendicesandListsTheRightInformationintheRightPlaceTablesfiguresappendicesandlistsareimportantpartsofmanyacademicandscientificarticlesyetsometimestheproofreaderneverseesthefirstthreebecausenotallauthorsincludetheminallproofreadingjobslistsontheotherhandareusuallyincorporatedintothemainbodyofthepapersotheytendtobeincluded.Whethertheseancillarypartsofapaperhaventyetbeencompletedortheauthoristryingtosaveonthecostofproofreadingonthepremisethatanyproblemsintablesfiguresandappendicescanberesolvedbasedonwhattheproofreaderoffersinthepaperitselfitisanunfortunateomissionbecausenotonlycanaproofreaderdomuchtohelpanauthorpresenttablesfiguresandappendicesthatsupporttheargumentofapaperandconformtoguidelinesbuttheproofreadingofthepaperitselfisenhancedbythepresenceofthesesupplementaryelementswithoutthemthepuzzleismissingsomeessentialpieces.Bethatasitmaywhentablesfiguresandorappendicesarenotincludedwithapaperyoureproofreadingyouwillonlybeabletocheckforaccuracywhateverreferencestothesepartsappearinthepaperitself.Youwillbeabletoensurethatallthreearereferredtoinnumericalorderthatplacementcuesifpresentareconsistentthatanyheadingscaptionsandtitlesmentionedfortablesfiguresandappendicesareclearandasmuchaspracticaluniforminstyleandthatanyreferencestothemseemappropriatetothecontext.Iftablesfiguresandappendicesareincludedwithapaperhowevertherearemanyotheraspectsofthismaterialthatwillneedcarefulattentionandliststoorequiresomespecialconsideration.CHAPTER6 2966.1TablesAccurateDataataGlanceAlthoughthelinedistinguishingtablesfromfiguresandlistscanbesomewhatblurryattimesgenerallyspeakingtablesshownumericalandortextualinformationinneatlyarrangedrowsandcolumnsthatrendertheinformationaccessibleataglanceandallowittobecomparedcalculatedandotherwiseusedbythereader.TheoveralllayoutofatablealltheelementscontainedwithinitandtheheadingandnotesthatappearaboveandbelowitmustbeclearconciseinformativeandaccuratethismeanstheymustuserulessymbolsandfontsizesandstylesthatarehighlylegibleandwillremainsowhenthetableappearsonlineorontheprintedpageforsomeexcellentexamplesoftableformatsseethePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.128150.Theguidelinesofscholarlyjournalstendtogivefairlydetailedinstructionsonhowtoformatandpositiontablesinanarticlesoifguidelinesareprovidedanyadvicetheyofferontablesshouldbeprioritisedwhileensuringthatthetablesinapaperdoalltheyresupposedtodo.Beawareparticularlyofanyrestrictionsregardingthemethodsfortableconstructiontheautomatictablefunctionsinwordprocessingprogramsareoftenusedtomaketablesbutsomejournalswillpreferamoremanualapproachusingtabsandspaces.Ontheotherhandmanyauthorsparticularlythosewhohavepublishedextensivelyhavetheirownideasabouthowtablesshouldbeconstructedandusedandsincetheyaretheexpertsintheirfieldsandmaywellknowmorethanyoudoaboutthestandardorcanonicaltableformatsusedintheirdisciplinestheirmethodsifeffectiveandnotcontrarytoanyrelevantguidelinesshouldbeobserved.ThecommentsIofferherearethereforenotintendedtopresentasubstituteforthemethodsofparticularguidelinesorstyleguidesorforthecarefullyconsideredpreferencesofindividualauthorstheyarealsonotmeanttoencourageyoutoalteraspectsCHAPTER6 297ofanauthorstablesthatareeffectiveandconsistent.Insteadtheyoutlinesomesoundscholarlypracticesfoundwithconsiderableconsistencyinmanyguidelinesandstyleguides.Achievingsimplicityofdesignwhilepresentingcomplexmaterialinauseableformatwithcompleteaccuracyisagoalintableswhichshouldbecomprehensibleeventononexpertsinafieldandshouldalsoincludealltheinformationneededforareaderinparticularthetypeofreadertargetedbythejournalinwhichtheauthorhopestopublishthepapertounderstandthemindividuallywithoutrecoursetothepaper.WhencheckingtablesthefollowingmattersareofparticularconcernPositiontablesaremorelikelytobeincludedinthemaindocumentofthepaperthanarefiguresandshouldappearinnumericalorderseemycommentsonnumberingbelownonethelessconventionsfortheirplacementdiffer.Somejournalsallowthemtobeembeddedinthetextinwhichcasetheyshouldappearincloseproximitytothepartofthetextthatdiscussesthemmostextensivelyorwheretheyarefirstmentionedsotheyareusuallynotalwaysincludedintheresultsanddiscussionsectionsofacademicandscientificpapers.Otherguidelineswillwantthemtackedontotheendofthearticleusuallywiththetablescomingbeforethefiguresifthereareanybutsometimesviceversa.AuthorswilloccasionallymingletheorderoftablesandfiguresincludedattheendofanarticlebasedontheorderinwhichtheywerementionedinthepaperTable1thenFigure1followedbyFigure2Table2Table3Table4Figure3etc.whilethisrepresentstheorderthetablesandfiguresmightultimatelyassumeorwouldassumeweretheyembeddeditisnottheclearestarrangementandcouldbepointedoutassuchunlesstheguidelinesspecificallyrequestit.OccasionallyjournalguidelineswillwantalltablessubmittedinCHAPTER6 298aseparatefileeitheraloneoralongwithanyfiguresincludedwiththepaperinwhichcasethetableheadingsmayneedtobeincludedinthemainpaperfileifsotheyshouldusuallyappearamongthefinalmatter.WhentablesareprovidedeitherattheendofthedocumentorinaseparatefiletheapproximatepositionsthetablesshouldultimatelyoccupyinthepublishedarticleshouldbeflaggedwithcuesInsertTable1abouthereorTable1nearhere.Eachcueshouldappearonaseparatelinewithoutanyothertextandwhilesuchcuesareusuallysetinromanfontboldoritalicfontcanbeusedtohighlightthemfurther.Whateverformatandwordingisuseditshouldremainconsistentsaveforthevaryingtablenumbersofcoursethroughoutthepaper.Ifnoguidelinesfortablesareprovidedhoweveranauthorssystemiflogicalandeffectiveshouldberetainedbutifsometablesareinoneplaceembeddedforinstanceandothersinanotherperhapsinaseparatefileandthereisnoclearlogicforthedistinctionyoumightwanttooffertheauthoraquery.Theremaybeavalidreasonforthedifferencelargertablesintendedonlyforsupplementaryarchivesonlineforexamplemightbesubmittedinaseparatefileandsomeguidelineswillcallforthis.Whetherornotyouchoosetoshifttablesaroundinadocumentormovethemintoadifferentdocumenttheauthorshouldbeinformedandoftenitisbettertodonomorethanexplaintheprobleminacommentandleavethemovingtotheauthor.Itwouldbemoreappropriatetoalterthepositionoftableswhenfollowingguidelinesthanwhenobservinganauthorssystemandifyoudofindyouneedtomakesuchchangestakespecialcarethatallofatableismovedwithoutleavinganystraybitsbehindorpickingupanyotherpartofthetext.Ifyouremovingatablefromanembeddedpositionthisisparticularlyimportantasisreconnectingtheremainingtextappropriately.WasthetableCHAPTER6 299embeddedinaparagraphthatshouldbeclosedupafterthetableisremovedorshouldanewparagraphbeginThisshouldbemadeclearbyappropriateindentationorviaspacingifthepaperdoesnotuseparagraphindentation.Ifontheotherhandtablesareleftembeddeditisespeciallyimportantthatanynotesatthebottomofatablearedistinguishedusuallyviaspacingandfontsizeseemypointontablefootnotesbelowfromtherunningtextofthepaperthatcontinuesbelowthetable.Numberheadingtitleandin-textreferencestotableseachtableshouldbenumberedandboththenumberandaheadingsometimescalledatitleshouldappearimmediatelyabovethetable.TablesareusuallynumberedwithArabicnumeralsthoughoccasionallyguidelinescallfororanauthorusesRomannumeralsintheorderinwhichtheyarefirstmentionedinapaperTable1Table2Table3etc.whichisgenerallyalsotheorderinwhichtheywillappearinthepublishedarticle.Eachtableshouldbereferredtointhepaperbyitsnumbernotitspositionasinabovebelowtotherightetc.whichcanchangeduringthepublicationprocessinsuchawaythatthereaderknowswhenandwhytoconsultit.ThiscanbedoneeitherintherunningtextTable1showsthedemographiccharacteristicsofthestudyparticipantsorparentheticallyinwholeorinpartWeconsideredthedemographiccharacteristicsofthestudyparticipantsseeTable1.Sometimesaninitialcapitalisusedforthetablereferenceasitisintheprecedingsentencebutsometimesnotseetable1andinsomepaperssuchreferencesappearinitalicorboldfontoreveninfullcapitalsseeTABLE1soanyoneoftheseformatsisfineaslongasitisusedconsistentlythroughoutapaper.IfareferencetoatableisoutoforderhoweverorthetablesthemselvesareoutoforderornumberedinawaythatdoesnotreflecttheorderinwhichtheyrementionedinthetexttheauthorwillneedtobeinformedCHAPTER6 300andiftheerrorsarestraightforwardandcanberesolvedwithoutguessworktheproblemscanbecorrectedbytheproofreader.Althoughinarticlesitisusuallybestiftherearenoadditionalnumbersorlettersincludedalongwiththemaintablenumbere.g.Table1.2Table1.iiiTable1.aTable1.Bandthelikeifanauthordoesusesuchnumbersandtablesandnoguidelinesindicateotherwisetheycanberetainedaslongasthesystemislogicalandconsistent.Theheadingaccompanyingthenumberforatableshouldbeasshortaspossiblebutdetailedenoughtoexplainbrieflywhatthetablecontainsandshows.Itshouldnotfurnishbackgroundinformationrepeatthecolumnheadsordescribetheresultsillustratedbythetable....LetthetablegivethefactscommentarycanbeofferedinthetextChicagoManualofStyle2003p.499.AfullstopusuallyappearsbetweenthenumberandtheheadingTable1.DemographiccharacteristicsofstudyparticipantsbutoccasionallyguidelinescallforacolonandnopunctuationatallisquitecommoninwhichcaseanextraspaceortwoisusuallyaddedormorerarelyTable1willappearononelineandtheheadingitselfonthenext.OnlytheinitialletterofthefirstwordoftheheadingisgenerallycapitalisedasintheprecedingsentencealongwithanypropernounsbutinsomestylesallmainwordsbearcapitalsTable1.DemographicCharacteristicsofStudyParticipants.AbbreviationsshouldbeavoidedintableheadingsasinallheadingsifatallpossibleandcertainlyiftheguidelinesspecifythisbutifanynonstandardabbreviationsalsousedinthetablemustappearinitsheadingtheycanbedefinedparentheticallyTable1.DemographiccharacteristicsofSPsstudyparticipantswouldbeeffectiveforinstancethoughmostnonstandardabbreviationsinatableshouldbedefinedinthetablefootnotesseemydiscussionbelowofabbreviationsandfootnotesintables.UnitsthatareusedthroughoutatablecanCHAPTER6 301alsobedefinedinitsheadingDistancetravelledbystudyparticipantsmetresperminuteandthelogicgoverningtheorderinwhichmaterialispresentedinatablecanalsobebrieflyexplainedintheheadingVegetablesnegativelyaffectedbyfrostarrangedfromleasttomostfrostresistant.Nofullstopisrequiredattheendofshorttableheadingsthoughsomeguidelinesdocallforoneifatableheadingrunstomorethanonesentencehoweveraclosingstopisappropriateandifthisisthecaseforoneormoretableheadingsafullstopcanbeusedaslongasguidelinesdonotpreventittoclosealltableheadingssothatconsistencyismaintainedacrossalltablesinapaperwhichshouldbeagoalforallaspectsoftablenumbersandheadings.TableheadingsareusuallysetinthesamefontsizeastherestofapaperbutsometimestheyoronlytheTable1partofthemuseitalicorboldfontinsteadofroman.Rulesalthoughrulesorlinescanbehelpfulforseparatingandclarifyingtheinformationpresentedintablesmostpublishersavoidverticalrulesandtheguidelinesofmanyjournalswillaskthatauthorsnotusetheminconstructingtables.Soiftheauthorofanarticleyoureproofreadinghasusedverticalrulesitisagoodideatocommentonthenecessityofremovingthemtocomplywiththeguidelinesprovidedorthewisdomofreducingthemtoabareminimumiftheguidelinesprovidenothingspecificontheissue.Extraspacewilloftenbeneededtoseparateitemsclearlywhenrulesareremovedsoitisbesttoleavethesechangestotheauthor.Horizontalrulesshouldalsobekepttoaminimumbuttheytendtobemoreacceptabletopublisherswithmosttablesdemarcatedbyheadandtailtopandbottomrulesnotethatthetableheadingshouldappearabovetheheadruleandthetablefootnotesbeneaththetailrule.Thelengthandpositionofanyrulesthatareretainedshouldbeappropriatesothattheyeffectivelyseparateandclarifythematerialpresented.CHAPTER6 302Columnheadingseachcolumnofatablemusthaveaheadingthatindicateswhatsortofdataiscontainedinthecolumnwiththeexceptionofthestuborleftmostcolumnwhichisusuallyalistofheadingsitselfandoftendoesnotrequireaheadingthoughoccasionallyguidelinescallforoneandthestubcancertainlybearaheadingifrelevantandhelpful.Columnheadingsshouldbeclearpreciseandlegiblewithallofthemusingsimilarphrasingorsyntaxandappearinginthesamesizefont.Sincespaceisusuallylimitedinatableandtablecolumnsshouldbenowiderthannecessarytheseheadingsshouldalsobeasbriefaspossibleshouldfeaturecapitalsontheirfirstwordandpropernounsonlyandshouldusenoendpunctuation.UnitsandpercentagesusedinthecolumnmustbeidentifiedinthecolumnheadingunlesstheyarecommonthroughoutthetableandmentionedinthetableheadingwhichisoftendoneinparenthesesDistancetravelledm.ParenthesescanalsobeusedtopresentmorethanonekindofdatainacolumnforexampleacolumnwiththeheadingNo.ofwomenmightcontainentriessuchas22441326and1938withthefirstnumeralrepresentingthenumberofwomenthesecondnumeralinparenthesesprovidingthepercentageandbothdoingsoclearlyandconciselywithouttheneedtorepeattheunits.Astheaboveexamplesshowabbreviationscanbeusedincolumnheadings.Oftenthesearestandardabbreviationsforweightsandmeasureswhichdontrequiredefinitionbutifanytechnicalunusualornonstandardabbreviationsareusedtheyshouldbedefinedforreadersinmostcasesnotinthecolumnheadingsthemselvesbutpossiblyinthetableheadingiftheunitsarecommontotheentiretableandmorelikelyinthetablefootnotesseebelow.ColumnheadingsarenotnormallynumberedunlessnumbersareusedinthetextitselfinrelationtothematerialpresentedinthecolumnsinwhichcasethenumberscanbeCHAPTER6 303helpfulforreadersusingthetable.Numbersorletterscanhoweverreplacelongcolumnheadingsifnecessarybutonlyifthosenumbersorlettersarenotconfusingforthereaderandaredefinedinthetablefootnotes.Columnheadingsandotherheadingsandtextwithintablesareoftenbutnotnecessarilysetinafontslightlysmallerthanthatusedinthemainpapersothefinalsizeofajournalsprintedpageortheultimateonlineformatoftablesshouldbeconsideredtoensurethattableswillbelegibleintheirpublishedforms.Columnheadingscanalsoappearinromanitalicorboldfont.Thecontentsyntaxandstyleofcolumnheadingsshouldbeconsistentthroughoutatableshouldoftentakethesameorasimilarformtothatofthestubheadingsandshouldalsobetreatedconsistentlyinsimilartables.Columnheadingsinonetableshouldnotbecomestubheadingsinanothersimilartableandthesameprincipleworksintheotherdirectionaswell.StubRowSideheadingseachrowofatableshouldbearaheadingindicatingwhatsortofmaterialiscontainedinthatrow.AllthatIvesaidaboveaboutthestyleformatunitsabbreviationsandconsistencyofcolumnheadingsappliestostubheadingsaswellwhichusuallyappearinthesamesizefontasthecolumnheadings.Stubheadingsareoftenalittlelongerthancolumnheadingshoweverandcanincludesubheadingsaswellsoitisimportanttoensurethatthesesubheadingsalsobearaninitialcapitalandthatindentationandperhapsfontstyledistinguishesthemfromanyrunoverlinesthemainheadingsincludingrunoverlinesmightbepositionedflushleftandappearinitalicfontforinstancewhilesubheadingsareslightlyindentedandsetinromanfontiftherearenosubheadingsrunoverlinescouldbeslightlyindentedinstead.Asageneralrulecolonsarenotneededbetweenmainheadingsandsubheadingsbutsomeguidelinesmaycallforthem.SomejournalsalsouseleadersCHAPTER6 304severalspacedstopsaftereachstubheadingtoconnecttheheadingtotherowanddatatowhichitappliesespeciallyifthatconnectionmightotherwisebeunclear.NumeralssinceIvealreadydiscussedtheuseofnumbersindetailIvesimplyoutlinedafewkeypointsherepleaserefertoSection4.3.1forfurtheradviceonusingnumbersintablesandelsewhereinanacademicorscientificpaper.Numbersintablesshouldinalmostallcasesappearasnumeralsnotwordswhichallowsforeasycalculationandcomparisonandalsosavesspace.ThedecimalcommasoftenusedbyEuropeanwritersshouldbechangedtodecimalpointsforanEnglishcontextandanymathematicaloperators-etc.shouldbeplacedupagainstthenumeralstheyapplytowithspecialcaretakenthatminussignsaredistinguishedfromhyphensanddashes.Spansofnumbersthatappearincolumnorstubheadingsshouldbeaccuratewithneithergapsnoroverlaps11011202130andsoonratherthan1911192129or11010202030.Numbersinthecolumnofatableshouldalsobealignedverticallyintermsofdecimalpointsandofcommasandspacesinrelationtothedecimalpointsiftherowscontainsimilarunitsandespeciallyifthecolumnhasatotal.Thismeansthatevenifnumeralsoffourdigitsforthousandsdonotuseacommaorspaceinthepaperitselfe.g.5671oneortheotheracommaoraspacedependingontheformatusedforlargernumeralswiththesecondmoretechnicalshouldbeaddedtotheme.g.5671iftheyappearinatablealignedwithnumeralsoffiveormoredigits.Thesameprincipleappliestodigitsafterthedecimalpointafterthreedigitscountedfromtheleftaspaceisoftenused15.34965butnotalwaysifthereareonlyfourdigitssoalignmentshouldbepreservedintablesbyaddingthespacetonumeralswithfourdigitsafterthedecimalifnumeralsoffiveormoredigitsafterthedecimalpointalsoappear.AsageneralruleCHAPTER6 305adecimalpointshouldbeprecededbyadigitespeciallyiflowerquantitiesarediscussedinrelationtoquantitiesof1.00andmoresoazerocanbeaddedifnecessarybutifthequantityneverreaches1.00asinprobabilitiesandcorrelationcoefficientstheinitialzerocanbeomitted.Itcanthereforebedifficulttodeterminewhenazeroshouldappearandwhenitshouldntandensuringthatyouunderstandthematerialperfectlybeforemakingsuchadditionsisessentialitisoftenbettertocommentonthematterandleavetheauthortomakeanychangesthatmaybeneeded.Thesameisthecasewiththenumberofdigitsthatappearafteradecimalpointinsomestylesthisnumbershouldbeconsistentacrossallnumeralsusedinaparticularcontextortableandzeroescanbeaddedtoachievethisbalancebutthisisnotauniformpracticeandthezeroesshouldnotbeaddedunlessyouresurethisisrequiredotherwiseaquerytotheauthorsuggestingthepossibilityofthisformatwillsufficeifyounoticeinconsistency.Consistencyintheformatofnumbersisessentialwithinatableandbestacrossalltablesinapaperaswellandessentialtooisaccuracyinreportingnumericaldata.Althoughtheproofreadernotbeingprivytotheresearchdatabeyondwhatispresentedinthepaperitselfisrarelyabletochecktheaccuracyofallnumeralsinatabletotalswherepresentcanbecheckedbyaddingthenumeralsinindividualcolumnsrememberingthatatotalbetween99and101isacceptableforpercentagesforwhichtheindividualnumbersareoftenroundedupordownthoughanoteinwhichtheauthorexplainsthisandanydiscrepanciesisagoodidea.Anymaterialrepeatedinothertablesinfiguresintheabstractandmainbodyofapaperandinanyotherpartsofanarticlecanbecheckedagainstthesameinformationineachtabletoensureaccuracyandasmuchaspossiblematchingformatsthroughoutthepaper.SomediscrepanciescanberesolvedifthereisenoughinformationinCHAPTER6 306thepapertoallowyoutodeterminewhichoftwonumbersiscorrectbutallsuchdiscrepancieswhethercorrectedornotshouldbebroughttotheauthorsattention.Unitsallunitsusedinatableshouldbeclearlyindicatedinapositionthatisappropriatetothematerialandpreventsrepetitionasmuchasthatispossible.Soiftheunitsusedinatableapplytoallormostofatabletheunitscouldbeindicatedinthemainheadingwhileunitsthatapplytothewholeofacolumnorrowshouldbeprovidedintheheadingforthecolumnorrow.Unitsshouldnotberepeatedineverycellofacolumnorrowunlesstheunitsdifferineachcaseandprovidingasingleunitforthewholecolumnorrowwouldbeinaccurate.Abbreviationsareoftenusedforunitsinatableandunlesstheseabbreviationsarestandardtheywillneedtobedefinedinthetableheadingorthetablefootnotesseemycommentsontableheadingsaboveandonabbreviationsandfootnotesbelowwhicheverismoreappropriateadditionalinformationaboutunitsusedinatablecanalsobeprovidedinthetablefootnotes.Iftablesaretobecomparedthesameunitsshouldbeusedinthemandwhereverthesameunitsareusedtheformatofthoseunitstermsabbreviationsetc.shouldbeidentical.Abbreviationsandsymbolsabbreviationsandsymbolssavespacesotheyareusedextensivelyintablesbuttheyareonlyeffectiveifreadersunderstandwhatismeantbythemsocommonabbreviationsandsymbolsforunitsofmeasuremente.g.CHzgkgmandkmandstandardstatisticalabbreviationsandsymbolsANOVAESNpRMSEASEMetc.shouldbeusedwheneverpossible.Theseusuallydonotrequireanydefinitionthoughifthereisanydoubtaboutreadersfamiliaritywiththestatisticalabbreviationsinparticulardefinitionsshouldbeprovidedeitherinthetableheadingseeaboveormorelikelyinthetablefootnotesseebelow.WhenCHAPTER6 307anynonstandardunusualorspecialistabbreviationsareusedsuchasthoseforhighlytechnicalordiscipline-specifictermsorthoseforgroupnamesandotheraspectsofaparticularstudytheymustbedefinedinthetableeveniftheyhavealreadybeendefinedinthepaper.Ifsuchanabbreviationappearsinboththetableheadingandthetableitcanbedefinedintheheadingbutotherwiseabbreviationsofthiskindshouldbedefinedinthefootnotesthatappearatthebottomofatable.Whateverkindsofabbreviationsareusedtheyshouldbeusedinthesameformsinallrelevanttablesaswellasinotherpartsofthepapersothatconsistencyandclarityaremaintainedthroughoutanarticle.Punctuationalthoughpunctuationisreducedtoaminimuminmosttablesthefewpiecesofpunctuationthatdoneedtoappearshouldbeconsistentinusageandformatnotonlythroughoutthetablebutinotherparticularlysimilartablesaswell.Ifrelevantguidelinesrequireafullstopafterthetablenumberintableheadingsorifanauthorwhohasnotprovidedguidelinesusesafullstopinthispositioninmosttableheadingsthefullstopshouldbeusedinalltableheadings.Thesameprincipleappliestoafullstopattheendoftableheadingsifitisrequiredbyguidelinesorusedmostofthetimebytheauthorormustbeusedoccasionallybecauseoneormoretableheadingsconsistofcompletesentencesthefullstopshouldbeusedinallcases.Alldecimalcommasshouldbechangedtodecimalpointsandotherpunctuationinnumeralscommasandspacesshouldbeconsistentagainwithinasingletableaswellasacrosstablesinapaperseethediscussionofnumeralsabove.Iftheguidelinescallforacolonbetweenaheadingandasubheadingitshouldbeapplieduniformlywhetherinthemaintableheadingorthestubheadingsorboth.IfbychanceafullsentenceappearswithinatableitshouldendwithterminalpunctuationwhetherthathappenstobeafullstoporinthecaseofaquestiondirectedatCHAPTER6 308participantsforinstanceaquestionmark.IftextorspeechisquotedinatableitcanbeenclosedinquotationmarksthoughthisisntusuallynecessaryiftheheadingsandnotesfullyexplainthesourceifforinstancequestionsfromthequestionnaireusedinastudyappearunderthecolumnheadingQuestions15orwordsfromscholarlystudiesappearundertheheadingsJones2006p.5Smith2012p.19andsoonnoquotationmarksarerequired.Thereferencingsystemusedtociteanysourcesinthiscontextshouldusuallymatchthatusedelsewhereinthepaperandthesourcesshouldappearinthereferencelistorbibliography.Footnotesalthoughsomestyleguidesandguidelinesacknowledgeonlythreekindsoftablefootnotesgenerallyspeakingtherearefourdifferentkindsoffootnotesthatcanappearasneededatthebottomofatablegeneralnotessourcenotesnotesonspecificpartsofthetableandprobabilitynotes.Ifanauthorssystemdiffersfromthisformatbutissensibleandeffectiveforthepaperanditstablesandtherearenoguidelinestothecontraryitcanberetainedorasisoftenthecaseimproved.Afewpublisherswillsetthegeneralnotesbetweenthetableheadingandthetableitselfleavingtheothersforthebottomofthetablebutmostbooksandjournalsplacealltablenotesatthefootofthetableimmediatelybelowthetailorbottomrule.Tablefootnotesareoftensetattablewidthinaslightlysmallerfontsizethanthatusedinthetableitselfwhichwhenatableisembeddedhelpstodistinguishthemfromtherunningtextofthearticlebeneaththetablebutalineortwoofspaceshouldnonethelessappearbeneaththetablefootnotesforaclearlayout.StrictlyspeakingeachnoteshouldbeginonanewlineandendwithafullpointbutthisisoftenimpracticalforreasonsofspaceandlayoutsoshorternotesofasingletypecanrunonseparatedbysemicolonsANOVAanalysisofCHAPTER6 309varianceCIconfidenceintervalESeffectsizeandlongernotesthatdiffermoregreatlyfromeachotherbutarestillinthesamecategorysometimesrunonseparatedbyfullstopsDatawerecollectedfromJune2011throughMay2013.ANOVAanalysisofvarianceCIconfidenceintervalandsoon.Thereisnoneedtouseanytypeofnoteunlessthattypeofexplanationordocumentationisrequiredbutthetypesofnotesshouldalwaysbearrangedwithinasinglepaperinthesameorderundereachtablethatusesmorethanonetype.Unfortunatelythereisnouniformagreementonwhatthatordershouldbeorexactlywhatshouldbecontainedineachtypeofnotethoughprobabilitynotesarealittlemorestraightforwardthantheothers.SotherelevantguidelinesmustalwaysbeconsultedandifthereislittlehelpprovidedthereornoguidelinestofollowfurtherdetailscanbefoundinButcheretal.2006p.226theChicagoManualofStyle2003pp.511513thePublicationManualoftheAPA2010Section5.16andRitter2005Section15.2.5.Whateverorderandcontentstheauthorusesforthefourorthreecategoriesconsistencyshouldbeobservedacrossalltablesinapaperandanyinformationrepeatedelsewhereinthepaperwhetherinthetableitselfinothernotesandtablesorincompletelydifferentpartsofthepapershouldofcoursecorrespondwithprecision.InthefollowingcommentsIoutlinethemostcommonandacceptedscholarlypracticesforconstructingtablefootnotesGeneralnotesasmightbeexpectedapplytothetablegenerallyorasawholeandusuallyappearfirstofthefourtypesthoughsometimessourcenotesprecedethemandwhenastyleguidementionsonlythreetypesoftablefootnotesitisusuallybecausethesourcenotesareincludedinthegeneralnotesseemycommentsbelowonsourcenotes.GeneralnotesusuallybeginwiththewordNoteorCHAPTER6 310Notesofteninitalicfontalthoughboldfontorfullcapitalsarealsousedbysomeauthorsandstylesandthewordisfollowedbyeitherafullstoporacolonfontandpunctuationshouldbeconsistentthroughoutthetablesinapaper.Noindicatorlinkingthegeneralnotescategoryortheindividualnoteswithinittoanypartofthetableisrequired.DefinitionsofabbreviationsareoftenincludedinthegeneralfootnotessoDatawerecollectedfromJune2011throughMay2013.ANOVAanalysisofvarianceCIconfidenceintervalESeffectsizewouldworkasageneralnote.Whenabbreviationsareincludedinageneralnoteinthiswaytheyareusuallylistedalphabeticallyhoweversinceabbreviationsareoftenusedonlyinoneplaceinatabletheirdefinitionscanappearinsteadinthecategoryofspecificnotesseebelowinwhichcasetheirordershouldreflecttheorderoftheirappearanceinthetable.Sourcenotesoftenappearasaseparatecategoryratherthanbeingincludedinthegeneralnotes.TheyusuallyopenwiththewordSourceorSourcesnormallysetinitalicfontalthoughheretooboldfontorfullcapitalsaresometimesusedandthewordisfollowedbyeitherafullstoporacolontheformatshouldmatchthatoftheNoteorNotesprecedingthegeneralnotesifthereareanyandremainconsistentacrossalltables.Sourcenoteswhichsometimesappearbeforethegeneralnotesandsometimesafterthemprovidereferencesforanymaterialtheformatofthetablethedatawithinitetc.thathasbeenborrowedfromanotherworkandtheyalsoacknowledgeandcreditthecopyrightsourcewithwhateverwordingmightbespecifiedinanyrequiredpermissions.WordingsuchasAfterTaylor2012p.17orDatafromSmith2012Chapter17orReprintedfromJones2006p.99Table3.2areoftenused.SourcenotesCHAPTER6 311canalsoprovidereferencestosourcesquotedwithinatablebutthesesourcescaninsteadbemarkedindividuallyandincludedamongthenotestospecificpartsofatable.Sourcescanbeprovidedviawhateverreferencingsystemtheauthorusesinthemainpaperaslongasthesourceorsourcesisincludedinthelistofreferencesorbibliography.Otherwiseafullbibliographicalreferenceshouldbeprovidedinthesourcenoteswiththisformatparticularlyappropriateformanuscriptsvisualartandothermaterialforwhichprovidingthelibraryormuseumanditslocationalongsidethematerialisstandardpracticeandrequiredbythepermissiongrantedbymanyinstitutionse.g.BasedonLondonBritishLibraryMS5.C.Vfol.193r.Notesonspecificpartsoftablesusuallyfollowgeneralandsourcenotesandareliketruefootnotesinthattheyarekeyedtospecificwordssymbolsandnumberswithinthetable.ToavoidconfusionthesystemofindicatorsusedinatablemustbeseparateanddifferentfromthatusedforanyfootnotesorendnotesincludedinthemainpaperbutthesamesystemshouldbeusedwhollyorpartiallyasrelevantinalltablesrequiringnotesonspecificpartssosuperscriptArabicnumberscanbeusedifnumberednotesarenotusedelsewhereinthepaperandifthenumbersdonotcauseconfusioninrelationtoanynumericaldataorunitsinthetable.IftherearealreadynumberednotestablenotesshouldtakeanotherformsuchassuperscriptlowercaseletterssuperscriptRomannumeralsoracollectionofspecificcharactersbuttheasteriskshouldntbeusedifprobabilitynotesalsoappearandanyothercharactersshouldbeusedonlyiftheypresentnopotentialambiguityinrelationtootheruses.ThetableshouldbereadacrosstherowsfromtoplefttobottomrightwhenprovidingindicatorswithinthetableandCHAPTER6 312arrangingthespecificnotesatthebottomofthetable.Suchnotescanbeattachedtoanyelementofatableexceptforthemaintableheadingfootnotesareusuallydiscouragedbypublishersonallmainheadingssoaspecificnoteindicatorcanbeattachedtoanumeralasymbolanabbreviationacolumnorrowheadingaquotationorothercitedmaterialoranyotheraspectofatablethatrequiresexplanationordocumentationexceptprobabilityandsignificancelevelsforwhichseemycommentsbelow.Probabilitynotesfollowallothercategoriesinvirtuallyallstyleguides.Likenotesonspecificpartsofatabletheyuseasystemofindicatorsbutonethatspecifiespvaluesviathenumberofasterisksattachedtoanumeralandisgenerallyexplainedwithanoteofthiskindp.05p.01p.001thePublicationManualoftheAPArecommendsthatanyvaluesmallerthanp.001notbeused2010p.139wherefurtherdetailsonpvaluesandprobabilitynotescanbefound.Notethatthepisusuallylowercaseandsetinitalicfontzeroesarenormallyomittedbeforethedecimalpointandstyleguidestendtoshowspacesaroundthe 313Whileitisnecessaryforanauthortohighlightanddiscussthedataandtrendsshownintablesandessentialthataccuracyandconsistencybemaintainedacrossthetablesandotherpartsofapaperinsuchdiscussionstablesshouldforthemostpartenhanceandsupplementnotrepeatandduplicateinformationprovidedinapaper.Soiftheauthordiscussesinthemainpapereveryitemandbitofinformationpresentedinatablethediscussionshouldusuallybereducedorthetableeliminateddependingonwhethertheprosediscussionorthetablesvisualdisplayisbestabletoconveytheinformation.Thisisnotadecisionfortheproofreadertomakeofcoursebutifyounoticeunnecessaryrepetitionofthissortyoucancertainlybringittotheauthorsattentionandevensuggestwhichofthetwopresentationformatsisinyouropinionmosteffective.Youmayalsowanttooffercommentsifitseemsthatatableissolargethatitmayneedtobeincludedasasupplementaryonlinefileorspreadovermorethanonepageintheprintedversionofajournal.FortheformertheauthorwillneedtoensurethatthetablecanstandonitsowninameaningfulwayonlineforthelatterboththeheadingabovethetableofteninanitalicisedabbreviatedformsuchasTable1continuedandallorsomeofthenotesbelowitasrelevantwilloftenneedtoberepeatedonthenewpageoropening.Althoughthesetendtobemattersforalaterstageinthepublishingprocesswhenthephysicallayoutofthepagesisbeingdesigneditiscertainlyagoodideatomentioninamarginalcommenttheprobabilitythatlargetableswillultimatelyrequireasomewhatdifferentstrategy.Finallyalistoftablesoralistoftablesandfiguresisoccasionallyrequiredbyjournalsifthisisthecasethelistusuallyappearsamongthepreliminarymaterialbutitcaninsteadbeincludedwiththefinalmatterofapaper.CHAPTER6 3146.2FiguresVisualisingandClarifyingContentAlthoughtablesaregenerallycharacterisedbyarowandcolumnformatanythingthatisnotatableisafiguresofigurescantakemanyformsincludingchartsdiagramsgraphsplotsboxesdrawingspaintingsphotographsandmaps.Figurescanbeincludedinadocumentforaestheticorpurelydecorativereasonsbutthisisrareinscholarlywritingandforthemostpartfiguresinacademicandscientificarticlesenhanceandfacilitatethepresentationofinformationaddingsubstantivelytotheargumentjustastablesdo.Journalguidelinesoftenprovideinstructionsforthepreparationandinclusionoffiguresthatareevenmoredetailedthanthosefortablessoanyrelevantguidelinesorstyleguidesshouldbecarefullyconsultedifontheotherhandnoguidelineshavebeenprovidedtheauthorssystemshouldberetainedandifnotentirelyeffectiveinallsituationscommentedonandorimproved.Likethetablesincludedinanarticlethefiguresshouldbecomprehensibletoreaderswhoarenotexpertsinthedisciplineofastudyandtheyshouldalsobecomprehensiblewithoutrecoursetothepaperwhichmeansthatallnecessaryexplanationsanddefinitionsofterminologyabbreviationsunitsrangessignificancelevelsconfidenceintervalsetc.needtobeincludedwitheachfigure.Althoughfiguresaresometimesembeddedinthemainbodyofanacademicorscientificarticlemoreoftenthanisthecasewithtablesfigureswillneedtobesubmittedinseparatefilesorpastedinattheendofthedocumentusuallyafteranytablestreatedsimilarlybutsometimesbeforethetablesdependingontheguidelinesorauthorpreferences.Sometimesalistoffiguresorillustrationswillbeincludedorrequiredeitheralongwithorexclusiveofalistoftablesifthisisthecasethelistisusuallyincludedinthepreliminarymatterthoughitcaninsteadappearinapapersendmatter.CHAPTER6 315TomeettherequirementsoftheguidelinesofmanyjournalsfigureswillalsoneedtobesubmittedinparticularfileformatssuchasPDFsTIFFsorJPEGsandfigureswillinallcasesneedtobeformattedanddesignedinamannerthatisclearlegibleandvisuallyeffectiveandwillremainsowhenreproducedbythejournalinwhichtheauthorintendstopublishthepaper.Largefiguresforexampleoftencannotbeaccommodatedinprintpublicationssoinmanycaseswillneedtobepublishedonlineassupplementaryfilesonlyandwhilesomejournalswillprintfiguresincolourthisoftenmeansextraexpensethatispassedontotheauthorandotherjournalswillonlyincludefiguresthatusecolouronlinesoanyuseofcolourinfiguresshouldbecarefullyconsidered.Ifforinstancesomefigureswillneedtobeorwouldbebetterinablackandwhiteorhalftoneformattheauthorcouldbeadvisedthatreproductionswillbesharperifmadefromablackandwhiteoriginal.Permissionsarealsoaconcernwhenusingcertainfiguressuchaschartsorimagesborrowedfrompublishedworksphotographstakenbyfriendsorotherresearchersandreproductionsofartandmanuscriptsownedbymuseumsandlibrariesandsincetheycanbequiteexpensiveespeciallyinsomeinstancesforcolourprintingtendtotakemoretimethanexpectedtoobtainandaresometimesunavailableitisimportantthattheauthordeterminesearlyonwhichfigureswillrequirepermissionsfromwhichpublishersandinstitutionsthosepermissionsshouldberequestedwhethertheycanbeobtainedornotandhowmuchtheywillcost.Thereisusuallynoneedtoprovidepermissionswithaninitialsubmissionofcoursebutbylearningaheadoftimeaboutthecostandcomplicationsinvolvedanauthorcanbetterdecidewhichfigureswillbefeasibleandaffordableandbyinformingthepotentialpublisherofwhatwillberequiredtheauthorcanhelppreventpossibleproblemsanddelaysinthepublicationprocess.CHAPTER6 316PRSTipInmanyinstancesaproofreaderwillnotactuallybeabletomakechangestofiguresembeddedorpresentedinaWorddocumentbecausetheyareoftenpastedintoWordfromanimagefilesothemainobjectivewillberecommendingandexplainingthereasoningbehindchangesthattheauthorwillneedtomake.Thismayinvolvedetailedexplanationsofwhatcouldbecorrectedmuchmoresimplybutitisessentialthatyoutakethetimetodothis.ForexampleanauthormayhaverequestedBritishEnglishyetusecolorinsteadofcolourthroughouthisorherarticleincludinginfiguresthatyourenotabletocorrect.Inthissituationsuggestingthatthewordcolorbechangedtocolourinthefiguresandassumingtheauthorunderstandstheimportanceofthechangeisnotthebestpolicy.ItsfarbettertoexplainwhyPleasenotethatyouhaverequestedBritishEnglishsoIvechangedthewordcolortocolourthroughoutyourpapertomeetthisrequirementbutImnotabletochangeitinyourfiguressoyouwillneedtochangeallinstancesofcolorinyourfigurestotheBritishspellingcolourtomatchthatwordinotherpartsofyourpaper.Equippedwiththisinformationtheauthorwillunderstandthatthechangenomatterhowsmallitmayseemisabsolutelynecessaryandthesamesortofexplanationcanpresentadviceforallkindsofchangesfromabbreviationstolabelstotheoverallstructureanddesignofafigure.ForfurtherinformationonfiguresparticularlyonpreparingthemforpublicationseethedetailedtreatmentsofillustrationsandfiguresinButcheretal.2006Chapter4theChicagoManualofStyle2003Chapter12thePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.150167andRitter2005Chapter16.TuftesclassicguideCHAPTER6 3172001todesigningstatisticalgraphschartsandtablesmayalsoprovehelpfulwhendealingnotonlywithfiguresbutwithtablesaswell.ManyofthepointsIvemadeabouttablesinSection6.1abovealsoapplytofiguressointhissectionIsimplyprovidesomenotesandcommentsspecifictofigurestoqualifyandsupplementthatdiscussionoftablestheproofreadershouldthereforeconsultbothsectionswhencheckingfigures.PositionallthatIsayabouttheplacementoftablesinSection6.1appliestothepositionoffiguresaswellbutthereareafewdifferences.Figuresareforonelessoftenembeddedinthemainbodyofanarticleandmoreoftentackedontotheendofapaperorsubmittedinaseparatefilethoughsometimesalongwithanytablesincludedinthepaperanditisaccordinglymorelikelythatguidelineswillrequestorauthorswillincludeonlythefigurecaptionsandorlegendsinthemaindocumentusuallyamongthefinalmatterofapaper.Placementcueswithinthepaperarethereforealmostalwaysneededforfiguresandtheseplacementcuesshoulduseaformatromanitalicorboldfontaninitialcapitalorfullcapitalsexactwordingetc.thatremainsconsistentthroughoutthepaperandmatchesthatofanyplacementcuesfortablesInsertFigure1abouthereorFigure1nearhere.Unlikethewordtablehoweverthewordfigurecanbeabbreviatedfig.soiftheguidelinesalloworcallforthisabbreviationortheauthorusesitconsistentlyInsertFig.1abouthereandvariationsusingtheabbreviationwouldbeanappropriateformatforplacementcues.Iftheguidelinesdonotrequiretheuseofthisabbreviationortheauthorusesboththeabbreviatedandthefullformofthewordpreferthefullversioninallinstanceswhilecorrectingforconsistency.Rememberthatplatesiftheauthorhappenstousethemaswellasfigureswhichisrareinarticlesarebynatureseparatefromthemaintextandnotusuallyembedded.CHAPTER6 318Numbercaptionlegendandin-textreferencestofiguresmuchofwhatIsayabouttablenumbersandheadingstitlesaswellasin-textreferencestotablesinSection6.1alsoappliestofigureswhichliketablesshouldbementionedinthemaintextofthepaperandnumberedaccordingtotheorderinwhichtheyrementioned.Sincefigurecanbeabbreviatedhoweveriftheguidelinesallowortheauthorprefersitsuchin-textreferencesmayusethatabbreviationseeFig.1.AnyplatesincludedmustalsobereferredtobynumberinthetextbuttheyshouldbenumberedseparatelysometimeswithRomaninsteadofArabicnumeralsandplateisusuallynotabbreviatedseePlateIImapsaresometimesnumberedseparatelyaswellseeMap1.Unliketablesfiguresdonothaveheadingsortitlesinsteadcaptionsandorlegendsareused.Thetermscaptionandlegendcanbeconfusinghowever.Captionusuallyreferstowhatisbasicallytheequivalentofatablesheadingtitleabriefandoftenexplanatorydescriptionofwhatthefigureshowsthatalsoincludesthewordfigureortheabbreviationfig.andthefigurenumber.Thecaptioncanhelpguidethereaderthroughunderstandingdifferentpartsorelementsofthefigureviainstructionssuchastotheleftattoprightinthebottomimageandsoonwhicharesometimessetinitalicorboldfontorvialettersabcetc.orABCetc.thatlabelthedifferentpartsandareexplainedinthecaption.Afigurecaptionusuallyappearsbeloworsometimesbesidethefigureitdescribesveryrarelyaboveitbutfigurecaptionscanandusuallyshouldusethesamestyleandformatwordingfontcapitalisationpunctuationetc.asthetableheadingsinapaperdoe.g.Figure1.PublicationdifferencesaccordingtogenderwhichmatchestheformatofTable1.DemographiccharacteristicsofstudyparticipantsthatIusedasanexampleinSection6.1abovealthoughthereareguidelinesthatwillrequireminimalcapitalisationontableheadingsforCHAPTER6 319instancebutallmainwordscapitalisedinfigurecaptionsorlegends.Shortcaptionsthatdonotconstituteafullsentencealsousefinalstopsmoreoftenthanshorttablecaptionsdososomeguidelineswillcallfororsomeauthorswillusefullstopsonfigurecaptionsbutnottableheadingsaninconsistencythatcanberetainedaslongasthefigurecaptionsareconsistentwitheachotherinallinstances.Legendissometimesusedinterchangeablywithcaptionbutalegendtendstoprovidemoredetailedinformationoramoreextensiveexplanationthanacaptiondoes.Insomestylese.g.PublicationManualoftheAPA2010p.159alegendisanintegralpartofthefigureusuallyappearinginthebottompartofthefigurebutnotbeneathitasthecaptiondoesandusingthesizeandstyleoffontusedwithinthefigure.Withthismeaningalegendoverlapswithakeywhichalsoappearswithinthefiguredefinesthesymbolsandabbreviationsusedinthefigureandexplainsanyotheraspectsofthefigurethatmightbeunclearwithoutdescription.Anauthormightuseonetwoormorerarelyduetotheoverlapallthreeofthesecaptionlegendandkeythatiswhileconstructinghisorherfiguresandsymbolsandabbreviationscanbedefinedinanyoneofthemwhilestatisticallysignificantvaluescanbeindicatedwiththeasterisksystemusedintheprobabilitynotesoftablesandsourcescreditsandacknowledgementsareusuallyprovidedattheendofthecaptionorlegend.Thecentralconcernfortheproofreaderistheoveralleffectivenessoftheauthorssystemitsconformitywithanyrelevantguidelinesanditsconsistencyacrossallthefiguresincludedinanarticle.DesignLayoutgenerallyspeakingtheinclusionoffiguresinanarticleimpliesthattheyarebetterabletocommunicateorillustratetheinformationtheycontainthanthewordsofthediscussionalonecoulddo.ThiscanonlybethecasehoweverifthefiguresincludedinapaperarevisuallyandtextuallyeffectiveinCHAPTER6 320themselvesandiftheirrelationshiptotheauthorsargumentisclearlyestablished.Placementclosetotherelevantdiscussionandaccuratein-textreferencesbynumberarecentralbutsotooisadequateintroductionanddescriptionbothintheauthorsmaindiscussionandinthecaptionlegendandlabelling.Itisworthaskingyourselfwhetherthefigureispresentedinawaythatenhancestheoverallargumentandwhetheritlivesuptotheexpectationscreatedforit.FocussingparticularlyonthefiguresthemselvesarephotographsclearanddotheyshowwhattheyshouldHavetheybeenalteredinanywaythatshouldbeacknowledgedwithdetailorsomethingofthesortorthatshouldbereconsideredbecauseitdistortstheoriginalortherealitypresentedAreanyofthepracticesandactivitiesdepictedinphotographsandotherillustrationsunsafeIsanymaskingofsubjectidentitiesrequiredArechartsandgraphscompleteDotheycontainanythingextraneousthatmightdistractthereaderfromtheprimarypurposeofthefigureandthatcouldberemovedtoincreaseclarityandsimplicityArelinesthinorthickenoughtoservetheirpurposeseffectivelyArebarsofequalwidthanddoestheirshadingandcoloursifusedclearlydistinguishwhatitshouldAlthoughperhapsnotquiteasattractivesolidsstripesandspotscanbemuchclearerthanshadingparticularlyinreproduction.ArebothaxesmarkedongraphsAreallscalesandunitssufficientlydefinedandeffectivelypositionedThescaleforamapforinstanceoftenincludingbothmetricandimperialmeasuresshouldbeplacedwithinthemapfigureratherthaninitscaptionsothatwhenthesizeofthefigureisalteredasitalmostinevitablyisduringthepublicationprocessthescaleandthemapmaintaintheirrelativesizesforfurtherinformationonmapsseeMonmonier1993.DomapsshowtheareasandlocationsdiscussedinthetextAreallplacenamesspelledexactlyastheyarewhenmentionedinotherpartsofthepaperCHAPTER6 321DochartsgraphsormapspresentingsimilarmaterialuseconsistentdesignelementsgraphicstylestypographyandterminologyDoesthenumberoffiguresincludedseemappropriateforthelengthandtopicofthepaperSometimesfiguresareconsideredasubstituteforargumentationbutwhiletheycanhelpagreatdealtheycannotreplacescholarlydiscussiononlysupportit.Theirclarityandsuccessinsodoingshouldbeaguidingconsiderationasfiguresareproofreadandchangesrecommended.Labelsthelabelsinafigureareequivalenttothecolumnandstubheadingsinatableandshouldbeequallyclearandbothconciseanddescriptive.AllimportantelementsofafigureshouldbeaccuratelyandeffectivelylabelledwitheachlabelappearingascloseaspossibletothepartofthefigureitidentifiesusingaleaderlinetoconnectthelabeltowhatislabelledifnecessaryandbearinganinitialcapitalonlyonthefirstwordandanypropernounsRightfrontandLeftsidebutBritishColumbia.Althoughthesamesizeandstyleoffontcanandoftenshouldbeusedforalllabellingwithinafigurefontsizesandstylescanbealteredtodistinguishdifferentcategories.InamapforexamplecountriescouldbelabelledwithfullcapitalsCANADAandotherelementsprovidedwithlabelsusinginitialcapitalisationonlywithregionsorprovincesmarkedinromanfontSaskatchewancitiesinboldfontTorontoandriversinitalicfontFraserRiver.Iffontsizesvarycheckthatthevariationisnotextremegenerallyspeakingthereshouldntbemorethana20differenceinfontsizewithinasinglefigureandthatallfontsandindividuallabelsarelegibleandifrelevantwillremainsowhenpublishedinprint.Levelsandaxesshouldbelabelledandunitsofmeasureprovided.Abbreviationsandsymbolscanbeusedbutaswiththosefoundintablesanythingnonstandardorpotentiallyunfamiliartotheintendedaudienceshouldbedefined.FootnotesCHAPTER6 322arenotusuallyusedinfiguressodefinitionsandotherexplanationsshouldbeprovidedinthefigurecaptionlegendandorkeyseemynextpointforfurtherdetails.Iffiguresareunclearandeitherrequireagreatdealoflabellingorarealreadyconfusedbytoomuchofittheauthorcanberemindedthatexcessivelabellingcanbeavoidedbyusingalongcaptionandoradetailedkeywhichareoftenmorelegibleandthusmoresuccessfultoolsforexplainingacomplexfigure.Aswiththeheadingswithintablesthestyleformatandcontentoflabellingshouldasmuchaspossiblemaintainconsistencywithineachfigureandacrossallrelevantfiguresinapaperandtheyshouldalsobeconsistentagainasmuchaspossiblewithanyinformationrepeatedinotherpartsofthepapermaindiscussiontablesetc..Abbreviationsexplanationsandsourcesinfiguresthefour-levelsystemofnotesfoundintablesisnotused.Insteaddefinitionsofabbreviationsinformationonprobabilityvaluesexplanationsofspecificaspectsofafigureanddocumentationofsourcesalongwithanynecessarycreditsandacknowledgementsareprovidedinthecaptionlegendorkeywithsomeelementsinoneandsomeinanotherifmorethanoneoftheseisused.Definitionsofsymbolsortintsforinstancemightbemoreappropriateinashortkeywhiledefinitionsofabbreviationswouldbebettersuitedtoalegendorcaption.GuidelinesdifferonpreciselyhowtheywantthedifferentelementsarrangedbutgeneralexplanationstendtocomefirstfollowedbydefinitionsofabbreviationsandprobabilitynotesusingthesameasterisksystemasthatusedintablesandalmostalwaysfinishingwithsourcesandacknowledgementssomegoodexamplesformattedaslegendswithinfigurescanbefoundinthediscussionoffiguresinthePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.152166.ReferencescanbeprovidedviathesystemusedelsewhereinthepaperaslongasthesourcesareCHAPTER6 323includedinthebibliographyorreferencelistbutfullbibliographicalinformationcaninsteadberecordedinthecaptionorlegend.Longernotesandexplanationsareusuallystructuredasfullsentencesbutshorteronessuchasdefinitionsofabbreviationsorasterisksforpvaluescanbepresentedasrun-onlistswiththeitemsseparatedbysemicolons.Anylogicalandeffectivesystemthattheauthorhasestablishedcanberetainedhoweveraslongasitdoesntcontradictrelevantguidelines.Whetherfollowingguidelinesoranauthorsusageabbreviationssymbolsdefinitionsexplanationsandtheirstylesshouldremainconsistentacrossallfiguresinapaperandinallplaceswherethesamematerialisrepeatedinotherpartsofthepaper.6.3ListsandAppendicesFunctionalSeparationFunctionalseparationisthekeytobothlistsandappendicesthoughthetwocreateseparationfordifferentpurposes.Listsseparateitemsinastructuredformtohighlightandoftentoordertheminahierarchywhileemphasisingeachoneandcanbeespeciallyeffectiveforpresentingcomplexandormultilayeredmaterial.Appendicesontheotherhandseparateaspectsofapaperthatplayasupportingbutnotacentralroleandareparticularlyusefulwherespaceisanissueandorwhenthematerialconcernedisreferredtoorusedinmorethanoneplaceinalongdocument.Lists.Therearetwobasickindsoflistsembeddedliststhatarerunintothemaintextanddisplayedliststhataresetverticallydownthepage.Embeddedlistsfollowtherulesgoverningnormalsentencestructureandarewellsuitedtobrieflistsinwhichtheitemsarenotexcessivelycomplex.InitssimplestformalistinrunningtextthatcorrectlycompletesasentencerequiresnospecialpunctuationandCHAPTER6 324nonumbersorletterstomarkindividualitemsShebroughtapplesstrawberriesandpearsandOurstudyfocussedoncancerpersonalitytraitsandlongevity.AserialcommacanbeusedasinthesecondexampleornotasinthefirstbeforetheconjunctionprecedingthefinalitemdependingontheusageinothersentencesinthepaperandthusoneitherguidelinerequirementsorauthorpreferencesformoreinformationoncommauseseeSection4.4.1above.IfnoserialcommaisnormallyusedonemaystillbeneededtoavoidambiguitywhenacompounditemjoinedbyaconjunctionappearsbeforethemainconjunctioninalistinShebroughtwinecheeseandlettucesandwichesandpiesforinstancetheserialcommaisnecessarybeforethefinalandtoavoidtheimplicationthatthepiestoocontainedcheeseandlettuce.Onlyitemsthatshareavalidsyntacticalrelationshipwiththeintroductorypartofthesentenceshouldbelinkedwithcommasandafinalconjunctioninthiswayforexamplethearticlemustbewellwrittencarefullyresearchedanduseaserialcommaconsistentlyispoorerstylethanthearticlemustbewellwrittenandcarefullyresearchedanduseaserialcommaconsistentlybecausethethirditemuseaserialcommadoesnotcorrectlyfollowsyntacticallyspeakingtheintroductoryphrasethearticlemustbe.Iftheopeningorintroductorypartofthesentencecontainingalistdoesnotleadnaturallyintothelistwithaverborprepositionforinstancebutformsanindependentclauseacolonisnormallyusedtointroducethelistpartofthesentenceasitdoesinthefollowingexample.ThebarbequewasacommunityaffairDaveboughtthesteaksSarahgrewthevegetablesandVictormadethewineformoreinformationoncolonsseeSection4.4.1above.WhenintroducingalistfollowasfollowsorthefollowingoftenappearsbeforethecolonThefollowingvegetableswereaffectedbythefrostthetomatoesbeansandcarrotsorThevegetablesaffectedbythefrostfollowtomatoesbeansandCHAPTER6 325carrots.IfanembeddedlistisbriefandorinformaladashenruleoremrulecanbeusedinsteadofthecolonThefrostdestroyedsomeofthevegetablesthetomatoesbeansandcarrotsbutsinceadashtendstoimplyanasideorafterthoughtratherthanamainideaacolonisthebetterchoiceinmostcasesandthetwoshouldnotbeusedtogethertointroducealist.IfmoredefinitiveorclearerseparationisrequiredinanembeddedlistnumeralsArabicnotRomanwhichtendtobetoocumbersomeforembeddedlistsorlettersusuallylowercaseenclosedinparenthesesandsometimessetinitalicmorerarelyboldfontareusedDilyswasespeciallygenerouscontributingmoreitemsthananyoneelse1wineandglasses2cheeseandlettucesandwichesand3appleandcherrypiesorDilyswasespeciallygenerouscontributingmoreitemsthananyoneelseawineandglassesbcheeseandlettucesandwichesandcappleandcherrypies.WhenoneormoreoftheitemsinanembeddedlistislongandorcontainsinternalcommassemicolonsshouldbeusedinsteadofcommastoseparatetheindividualitemsinwhichcaseasemicolonshouldappearbeforetheconjunctionprecedingthefinalitemevenifaserialcommaisnotnormallyusedinthearticleEveryonecontributedsomethingproducedbytheirownlabourVictormadetwotypesofwineredandwhiteandhiswifebroughtherhandmadepotterywineglassesDebbiemadeasaladwiththefreshvegetablesfromhergardenbakedapiewiththeberriesshedgatheredonthebarrensandbroughtoneofherembroideredtableclothsandCharliebroughthisblenderalongwithbagsoficefreshlimesandotherfruittomakeslushiesforthechildrenandmargaritasfortheadultsseealsothediscussionofsemicolonsinSection4.4.1above.Numbersorletterscaneasilybeaddedtosuchalistforclearerdivisionortodefineahierarchyoforderorimportance.InallcasestheitemsinembeddedlistsshouldbeasconsistentaspossibleinphrasingandCHAPTER6 326structuresothatthelistlikeanyotherwell-formedEnglishsentenceissyntacticallybalancedandcorrect.Thegrammaticalbalancerequiredinanembeddedlistshouldalsobeobservedinadisplayedlistwhetherthelistformsasinglecompletesentenceorconsistsofmanysentences.Inmostcasessingle-sentencelistsshouldbeembeddedinsteadofdisplayedbutsincethepurposeofdisplayedlistsistoseparatematerialandmakeitstandoutsothatitcanbeeasilyfoundconsultedandunderstoodifsuchemphasisisrequiredforasingle-sentencelistadisplayedformatisappropriate.Whenadisplayedlistformsasinglesentenceeachitemshouldopenwithalowercaselettertheindividualitemsshouldbeseparatedbycommasorsemicolonsdependingonthelengthofeachitemanyrelevantguidelinesandtheauthorspredominantusageandthesentenceshouldclosewithafullstopafterthefinalitembuttheconjunctionthatnormallyprecedesthefinaliteminembeddedlistsisomittedindisplayedlistsasinthefollowingexample.Dilysdemonstratedhergenerositybybringingwineandglassescheeseandlettucesandwichesappleandcherrypies.Thebulletsarentstrictlynecessarythethreeitemscouldappearflushleftwithoutanyotherchangeandnumeralsorlessoftenletterscouldbeusedinsteadofthebulletstoindicateahierarchyamongtheitems.InadisplayedlistwherethereismoreroomandclaritythaninanembeddedlistRomaninsteadofArabicnumeralscanbeusedbutArabicnumeralsarestillthemostcommonandacceptablechoice.SometimessuchlistsareslightlyindentediftheauthorhasusednumbersorbulletsforinstanceWordwillusuallyaddindentationautomaticallyasithasinthedisplayedlistsinthisandthenextparagraphandoccasionallydisplayedlistsappearinaslightlysmallerfontthanthemaintextofthepaperjustasCHAPTER6 327quotationsdothoughthereisnoneedforthisbeyondsavingalittlespaceandIhavenotusedthatformathere.Inmostcasesdisplayedlistsareintroducedbyanindependentclauseorcompletesentencefollowedbyacolonorlessfrequentlyafullstopasthefollowingexampleshows.Dilyswasespeciallygenerouscontributingmoreitemsthananyoneelse1.wineandglasses2.cheeseandlettucesandwiches3.appleandcherrypiesWhentheitemsareshortsinglewordsphrasesorsentencefragmentsastheyareintheexampleaboveeachcanbeginwithalowercaseletterbutwhennumbersareusedafullstopusuallyfollowseachnumberandthefirstletterofeachitemissometimescapitalisedeitherwaycommasorsemicolonsseparatingtheitemsandafinalfullstoparenotrequiredthoughtheyarealsonotstrictlyincorrectifthelistwithitsintroductoryclauseformsasinglecompletesentencesoifthepunctuationusedbytheauthoriseffectiveandconsistentthroughoutthepaperanddoesnotstrayfromanyguidelinesprovideditcanberetained.WhentheitemsarelongerandmorecomplexwitheachofthemformingoneormorecompletesentencesthelistwillneedtobedisplayedverticallyratherthanembeddedandwhethernumbersbulletsornosuchmarkersareusedeachitemshouldbeginwithacapitalandclosewithafullstopasthefollowingexampledoesseealsothenumberedlistinSection7.2below.ThepotluckwasagreatsuccesswitheveryonebringingsomethingspecialDilysdemonstratedhergenerositybybringingwineandglassescheeseandlettucesandwichesandappleandcherrypies.Victormadetwotypesofwineredandwhiteandhiswifebroughtherhandmadepotterywineglasses.CHAPTER6 328Debbiemadeasaladwiththefreshvegetablesfromhergardenbakedapiewiththeberriesshedgatheredonthebarrensandbroughtoneofherembroideredtablecloths.Charliebroughthisblenderalongwithbagsoficefreshlimesandotherfruittomakeslushiesforthechildrenandmargaritasfortheadults.WiththeautomaticindentationprovidedforbulletedandnumberedlistsinWorditisclearwhereoneitemendsandthenextbeginsbutwerenoindentationusedlinesthatranoverwithinasingleitemcouldbeindentedslightlyusinghangingindentationtoclarifytheseparationoralittlespacecouldbeaddedbetweentheitems.Sometimeslistsmustbedisplayedverticallybecausetheitemsareverylongbutnospecialtypographicalprominenceisrequiredsoasimpleparagraphformatcanbeusedafterthelistisintroducedwitheachparagraphnumberedbutotherwiselikeotherparagraphsinthedocumentwhetherthatmeansindentationofthefirstlineofeachparagraphorspacingbetweentheparagraphs.SomelistshoweverarefarmorecomplexthananyoftheexamplesIveprovidedsofarfeaturingseverallevelsorsubdivisions.IndentationincreasingslightlywitheachlevelcanbeusedtodistinguishthelevelsinsuchlistsandifthelistisnottoocomplicatedthatissometimesenoughtomakethelevelinwhicheachitembelongscleartothereaderbutsuchsubdividedlistsareusuallymarkedbyasystemofnumeralsbothRomanandArabicifnecessarylettersbothuppercaseandlowercaseifneededparenthesesanditalicsoccasionallyboldaswellifathirdfontisrequiredtoprovideeachlevelwithdistinctivequalities.Someguidelinesmayprovidealittleadviceontheappropriateorderforsuchelementsbuttherearenosetrulesandthemethodvariesfromauthortoauthorandpapertopaperconsistencywithinasinglearticleisidealbutdifferentlistsmayrequiredifferenttreatmentsosomeflexibilityisoftennecessary.CHAPTER6 329Possibleordersmightinclude1.ai1.a.iaI.A.1.a.iaoranyothercombinationthatislogicalconsistentandeffectiveseetheChicagoManualofStyle2003p.275foranexampleofalistwithsevenlevelsofdifferentiationandseealsoAppendicesIandIIbelowwiththefirstusingindentationandspacingtodistinguishlevelsandthesecondusingindentationspacingandnumberedheadings.Althoughsubdividedlistscanbecomeverycomplexindeedtheydonotcrossthelineintotherealmoftablesunlesseithercolumnorstubheadingsareprovided.Ifoneofthesetypesofheadingispresentthelistbecomesanopentablewhichpresentsinformationinaconvenientandeffectivevisualformbutdoesnotrequireanumberatableheadingoranykindofrulesorlines.Anopentablecanbeintroducedwithacolonasalistisbutthismeansthatitmustappearimmediatelyafterthecoloninthepublishedarticlesinceopentablescanbebrokenacrosspagesmoreeasilythantablesthiscanusuallybeaccommodatedwhenanarticleisprintedbutitcanalsopresentproblemswiththetypesettingandfinallayoutofanarticlesoitmaybeagoodideatowarntheauthorofthispossibilityespeciallyifthearticlealsocontainsseveralformaltablesandfiguresthatpresentadditionalchallengeswhenitcomestolayingthepaperoutinprint.Ifontheotherhandbothtypesofheadingcolumnandstubarepresentthelisthasbecomeaformaltableandshouldbeformattednumberedandtitledaccordingly.ListsareanextremelyeffectivewayofpresentinginformationwhetherstraightforwardorcomplexinavisuallyandintellectuallyaccessiblemannerbutlistscanonlydowhattheyareintendedtodowelliftheyarenotonlystructuredandwrittenclearlyandeffectivelybutalsointroducedinawaythatexplainsboththeirfunctionandcontentandcreatesasmoothandlogicaltransitionCHAPTER6 330betweentheauthorsproseandthelist.IfforinstancethepaperyoureproofreadingexplorestherelationshipbetweenpersonalitytraitsanddifferenttypesofcanceranappropriateintroductiontoalistofthetraitsconsideredmightbePreviousstudieshaveinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenpersonalitytraitsanddiseasebutfewhavefocussedondifferenttypesofcancer.Inthisstudyweexploretherelationshipbetweenfivedifferenttypesofcancerandthefollowingpersonalitytraits.Acolonshouldappearafterthefinalwordandthelisteitherembeddedordisplayedshouldfollow.Oncethelistisfinishedtheauthorsargumentshouldcontinueequallysmoothlybydiscussingthetraitslistedorperhapsbylistingthefivetypesofcancerinthefirstcasetheparagraphabovethelistcouldsimplycontinuebutinthesecondanewparagraphmightbemoreappropriate.Becauselistsaremorevisuallyaccessiblethanmanyotherpartsofapaperreaderstendtoreturntolistswhennecessarytocheckdefinitionscategoriesexplanationsandanyotherinformationincludedtheresoitisessentialthatallterminologyabbreviationsdataandothermaterialinalistareaccurateandusetheexactsamestylesandformsasareusedinthemaindiscussionandotherpartsofthepaper.Aconfusedreaderreturnstoalistmuchasheorshewouldtoatableorfiguretofindclarityandresolutionnotmoreconfusion.Certainkindsoflistshavebecomesoconventionalinacademicandscientificwritingthatnoproseintroductiontothemisnecessary.Tablefootnoteslistingabbreviationsandtheirdefinitionsorprobabilityvaluesaregoodexamplesandsoarebibliographicalreferencesprovidedinfootnotesorendnotesandparentheticalin-textreferences.InallthesecasessemicolonsareusedtoseparatetheitemsforexampleANOVAanalysisofvarianceCIconfidenceintervalESeffectsizeandAdams2009Butcheretal.2006Jones2009Ritter2005.InmanylistsofthiskindanalphabeticalCHAPTER6 331arrangementlikethatIvejustusedinthetwoexamplesIprovidedistraditionalorrequiredandthesameisthecasewhenalistisheraldedbyaheadingasabbreviationlistsandreferencelistsorbibliographiesareAbbreviationsANOVAAnalysisofvarianceCIConfidenceintervalESEffectsizeNoticethatthefirstletterofeachdefinitioninthisexampleiscapitalisedandanyadditionalmainwordsmaybeaswelle.g.AnalysisofVarianceandthatthesignoftenusedbetweenanabbreviationanditsdefinitioninafootnoteisbetterasacoloninadisplayedlistacoloncanreplacethesigninin-notelistsaswell.Alternatearrangementsincludechronologicalinsteadofalphabeticalorderforparentheticalin-textreferencesnumericalorderforlistsoftablesorfiguresandreferencelistsusinganumericalsystemandorderofimportanceforlistsofcontributingauthorsandpossiblereviewers.Appendices.Althoughappendicesareonlyoccasionallyincludedinacademicandscientificarticlestheyarepermittedinmanyguidelinesandoftenpreferabletoextensivefootnotesorendnotesortoomuchextraneousinformationinthemaintextofapapersosomeauthorswillusethem.Appendicesalsocalledappendixesandannexespresentsubsidiaryorsupplementarymaterialthatisdirectlyrelatedtothetextandpotentiallyhelpfultothereaderbutwhichmightprovedistractingorinappropriateorsimplytoospaceconsumingwereitincludedinthemainbodyofapaperorwouldresultinafootnotetoolongandcomplextobeeffectiveonthepage.AnappendixisalsoagoodformatformaterialthatismentionedordiscussedinmorethanoneplaceinalongdocumentasthematerialinthetwoappendicesinthisbookisbecauseithelpstheauthorCHAPTER6 332avoidrepetitionwhilerenderingtheinformationreadilyavailabletoreaders.Appendicescancontainawidevarietyofmaterialsuchastextsdiscussedinthepapertranslationschronologiesgenealogiesexamplesofprinciplesandproceduresdescriptionsofcomplexpiecesofequipmentsurveyquestionnairesparticipantresponsesdetaileddemographicsforapopulationorsamplelistsparticularlylongonestablesandfiguresexplanationsorelaborationsofanyaspectofastudyandanyothersupplementaryinformationrelevanttoanarticle.HoweveranappendixshouldnotbearepositoryforoddsandendsthattheauthorcouldnotworkintothetextChicagoManualofStyle2003p.27.Ideallyeachappendixshouldhaveaspecificthemefocusorfunctionandgathermaterialsofaparticulartypeorrelatingtoaparticulartopicifmorethanonethemeortopicrequiresthissortoftreatmentadditionalappendicesshouldbepreferredtosubdividingasinglelongappendixalthoughappendicescancertainlymakeuseofinternalheadingsandsubheadings.Itisalsobestifappendicesliketablesandfigurescanstandontheirownsoallabbreviationssymbolsandspecialisedortechnicalterminologyshouldbebrieflydefinedorexplainedenablingthereadertounderstandthematerialwithoutrecoursetodefinitionsandexplanationsinthemainpaper.Allinformationinappendicesthatoverlapsmaterialinthemainbodyofthepapershouldalsocorrespondwithitinbothcontentandformat.Appendicescanusethefontsizeusedinthemainbodyofthepaperoraslightlysmallerfonttosavespaceandtheynormallyappearinthefinalmatterofapaperbeforetheendnotesifthereareanyorbeforethereferencelistorbibliography.Thefirstappendixusuallybeginswithaheadingonanewpageandsubsequentappendicessometimesdothesamethoughtheycanrunoninsteadwithalittleextraspacingabovethenewheadings.IfthereisonlyoneappendixinapaperitwillnotneedaparticularlabelbeyondAppendixbutCHAPTER6 333multipleappendicesaregenerallyidentifiedbyuppercaselettersorbyArabicorRomannumeralsaccordingtotheorderinwhichtheappendicesarementionedinthemaintextofthepaperwhichshouldmatchtheorderoftheirappearanceinthefinalmatterAppendixAAppendixBAppendixCetc.orAppendix1Appendix2Appendix3etc..AppendicesshouldbereferredtobytheselabelswhentheyarediscussedinthepaperandeachappendixshouldbementionedorreferredtoatleastbrieflyinthepaperbuttheheadingsontheappendicesthemselvesusuallyandinsomestylesmustfeaturetitlesthatdescribewhatcanbefoundineachappendixforexampleAppendixAAChronologyofBookProductioninFourteenth-CenturyLondonorAppendix1Questionnaire3inGermanandEnglish.Ifasingletableorfiguremakesupthewholeofanappendixtheappendixlabelandtitlearesufficientforthetableorfigureaswellbutifanappendixcontainsmorethanasingletableorfiguretheseshouldbenumberedseparatelyfromthetablesandfiguresassociatedwiththemaintext.IfthereisonlyoneappendixacapitalAforAppendixshouldbeusedbeforethetableorfigurenumbersTableA.1TableA.2FigureA.1andFigureA.2butifmorethanoneappendixisincludedthespecificletterornumberoftheappendixshouldbeusedaswellasthetableorfigurenumberTableA.1TableC.3FigureB.2FigureD.4andthelike.ThefullstopisnotalwaysusedinsuchlabelsTableA1TableC3FigureB2andFigureD4beingequallyacceptableandguidelineswillsometimesindicatewhichispreferablebutwhenappendixlabelsusenumbersinsteadoflettersafullstopbetweentheappendixnumberandthefigurenumberisnecessaryforclarityespeciallywhenArabicnumeralsareusedtonumberappendicesforexampleTable2.1Figure4.2TableII.3andFigureIV.1.AlltablesandfiguresusedaspartofanappendixshouldbementionedwithintheappendixandCHAPTER6 334numberedaccordingtotheorderinwhichtheyarementioned.Thetablesandfiguresmaybeembeddedintheappendicesbutifguidelinesorauthorpreferenceswouldhavetablesandfiguresforthemainpapersubmittedinadifferentfileorfilesthesameapproachshouldprobablybeusedforappendixtablesandfigures.Whileappendicesaccommodatesubsidiarymaterialintheprintoronlineversionsofanarticlepublishedinajournalasupplementalmaterialssectionisanonlinearchiveinwhichyetmoreinformationrelatedtoanarticlecanbemadeavailabletoreadersviaalinkbetweenthearticleandthearchive.Sinceonlinearchivesarenotprintedanddonotneedtomeettherequirementsofpagelayoutstheyareaperfectsiteforoversizedtablescolourfiguresaudioandvideoclipscomplexandlengthycomputationalormathematicalmaterialdetaileddescriptionsofprotocolsandmethodologyandmanyotherkindsofinformationforwhichthereisnoroomornomeansofeffectivereproductioninthemainarticle.Anythingthatwouldbemoreaccessibleandusefulasadirectdownloadisalsoagoodchoiceforasupplementalmaterialssection.SupplementalmaterialsshouldbesubmittedinwidelyaccessiblefileformatsseethePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.3940foralistofpreferredmultimediaformatsfordifferenttypesoffilessuchastexttablesimagesandvideosandlikeallancillaryorsupplementarymattershouldideallybepreparedinsuchawaythatreaderswillbeabletouseandunderstandthemwithoutrecoursetospecificdefinitionsinthearticleitself.Aswithappendicesallinformationprovidedinsupplementalmaterialsshouldmatchpreciselyanyrepetitionofthatinformationinpartsofthemainpaper.FinallysupplementalmaterialsshouldbeincludedintheauthorsarticlesubmissiononlyiftheyhelpreaderstounderstandevaluateorreplicatethestudyortheoreticalargumentbeingmadePublicationManualoftheAPA2010p.40.CHAPTER6 335Chapter7ProducingaCleanCopyforJournalPublicationReachingtheendofanacademicorscientificarticleespeciallyonethathaspresentedspecialchallengesintermsofwrittenstylescholarlyconventionandgeneralconsistencycanfeeltotheproofreaderlikeamomentforcelebrationandindeeditis.Alltheproblemshavebeenflaggedandmanyofthemcorrectedadialoguewiththeauthorhasbeenestablishedandadviceaboutmanyspecificissueshasbeenprovided.HoweverthejobisnotyetdonebecauseaproofreadermustalsoproofreadhisorherownworkandturningacriticaleyeononesownpoliciesandprocedurescanattimesbeaspainfulastacklingthemostincomprehensibleEnglishsentenceimaginable.Someproofreaderswillofcourseattempttogetitallrightinthefirstcompleterunthroughadocumentbutitisinpracticealmostimpossibletoachievethisideal.Inrealistictermsitisextremelydifficulttoarriveatperfectionevenaftercombingthroughadocumentseveraltimesandthusarareeventwhenanywrittenworkevenascholarlypaperpublishedinareputablejournalemergesfromthepublicationprocesscompletelyfreeoferrors.Authorsproofreaderseditorsandtypesettersareonlyhumanafterallandaproofreaderdeservesthesamecourtesyofasecondcheckasheorshegrantstheauthor.Sopayyourselfthiscourtesyandyoulldoboththeauthorandyourselfafavourintheprocess.ThereisnodoubtthatitwillincreasetheaccuracyofyourworkandimprovetheoverallqualityofthearticlesyouproofreadandifitisdoneattentivelyandthoughtfullyitwillalsoteachyouagreatdealaboutyourowneditinghabitsandtendenciesparticularlyaboutanyCHAPTER7 336proclivitytooversightsanderrorsofcertaintypesorassociatedwithcertainkindsofmaterial.Asaresultsuchoversightsanderrorscanbereducedandeliminatedmorereadilyinfutureproofreadingjobsthantheywouldbewereyourworknotself-analysedandimprovedinthiswayandtheauthoralongwithanyfutureauthorswinsaswellwithapaperthathasbeenmorecarefullyproofreadbyamoreexperiencedandqualifiedproofreader.PRSTipItisessentialthatallpartsofanarticlebesubmittedtothejournalinthecorrectfileformats.Atthisstageyoushouldofcoursealreadyhavebeenworkingwiththefileformatsrequiredinanyguidelinesyoumaybefollowingbutitmightbeworthcheckingthoseguidelinesespeciallyifyoureworkingwithmorethanonetypeoffilejusttobeabsolutelysurethefileformatsarecorrectbeforemovingontothefinalstage.Ifanypartsofapaperhavenotbeenprovidedinthecorrectformatyouwillneedtoinformtheauthorofthediscrepancyadvisingthatheorsheconvertthesepartstotherighttypesoffileoryouwillneedtoconvertthefilesyourselfthoughthelattershouldonlybeattemptedifyouaresureyouknowwhatyouredoingandarewillingtocheckthroughthenewfilestoensurethatnoerrorsorinconsistencieshavebeenintroduced.Fileformatisonlyoneofmanyaspectsofanarticlethatshouldberecheckedinthefinalstageofproofreading.Whilereviewingyoureditingworkandthepaperasawholeforinstanceanychecklistsincludedintherelevantguidelinesshouldbeconsultedtoensurethatallrequirementshavebeenmetorexplainedtotheauthorsothatheorshecanmakethenecessaryadjustments.ThemoregeneralchecklistsprovidedinsomestyleguidesmayprovehelpfulaswellseeforexampletheChecklistofCopy-EditinginButcheretal.2006Appendix1andtheCHAPTER7 337ChecklistforManuscriptSubmissioninthePublicationManualoftheAPA2010pp.240243whichalsocontainschecklistsfortablesandfigurespp.150167.7.1ReviewingChangesandCommentsintheEditedDocumentMyownapproachtoreviewingmyon-screenworkinanacademicorscientificarticleisbasedontheneedtoreturntotheauthorviaaproofreadingserviceornotbothtrackedandcleanversionsofapaperpreparedandeditedinWord.Manyauthorsandproofreadingcompanieswillwantbothversionsandeveniftheyhavenotbeenspecificallyrequestedreturningbothtrackedandcleancopiescanbeagoodideabecausethetrackedversionallowstheauthortoseeexactlywhatyouvedonetothedocumentwhilethecleanversionshowshowthoserevisionshaveaffectedthearticleandalsoprovidesaversionverynearlyreadyforpublication.Sincethecommentswillappearinbothversionstheyprovidethesameguidancewhethertheauthorusesbothversionsorfocusespredominantlyononewhilefinalisingthepaper.Thetwoversionsservethesamepurposesfortheproofreaderwiththetrackedversionprovidingarecordofthechangesmadetotheoriginaldocumentandthecleanversionrecordingtheresultsofthosechanges.SoIfollowatwo-stageprocessatthispointwiththefirstfocussingonimprovingtheworkingfileorworkingfilesiftherearemorethanoneforapaperinwhichIvetrackedchangesasIveproofreadandthesecondonproducingandproofreadingthecleanversionperfectingitasmuchasthisispossibleagainstthetrackedversionwhichiswhattheworkingfilewillbecome.CHAPTER7 338IgenerallybeginbyreadingthroughallofthemarginalcommentsIvemadeintheworkingfiles.Oftencommentsareenteredquicklywhileaproofreaderisactuallyfocussingontheissuesinapaperthatrequireattentionsotypingerrorsarecommonandsotooareincompleteorpoint-formthoughtsadviceandsuggestions.Althoughacertainamountofinformalityisacceptableinthemarginalcommentswhicharentafterallpartofthepapercontractionsandcolloquialphrasingarefineforinstanceaslongasyourecertaintheauthorwillunderstandthemeverythingyousayshouldbeclearaccurateandasmuchaspossiblecorrectlywrittenincompletesentences.RememberthathowyoucommunicatewiththeauthorisameasureofyourEnglishlanguageskillsandassuchcanquicklyinflateordeflatetheauthorsconfidenceinyourabilitytomakejudgementsabouthisorherwritingandiftheauthorsEnglishispooryourcommunicationwithhimorherwillneedtobewordedmorenotlesscarefully.SoreadyourowncommentswithyoureyealerttoerrorsandanywordingthatcouldbeambiguousormisleadingandifyoureinanydoubtabouttheauthorsunderstandingofyourintentionstakecaretoexplainyourthinkingandproceduresindetailusingvocabularyassimpleaspossibleandstraightforwardEnglishsentences.Remembertoothatthoseinvolvedinpublishingsuchasproofreadersandeditorsusespecialisedterminologymuchasotherprofessionsdoandtheauthorwhowillrarelybeaspecialistinlanguageandpublicationwillhavetocopewiththatjustasyouandotherreadershavetocopewithhisorherspecialisedterminology.PreferacommonoveratechnicalorraretermforelementsoflanguagegrammaticalandsyntacticalconceptsandpublicationdetailsslashforexampleismorecommonthansolidusobjectmorecommonthanaccusativeandblackandwhitemorecommonthanhalftoneandwhenyoumustuseatermthatyoususpectmaynotbecleardoyourbesttodefineitsemicolonforinstancecanbefollowedbythemarkitselfCHAPTER7 339inparenthesesandthesameclarificationcanbeusedwhenreferringtoothermarksofpunctuationandsymbolsofallkindswhichcanifnecessarybediscussedsimplybyusingthesymbolwithoutgivingitaname.Expandanyabbreviationsyoumayhaveusedinyourmarginalcommentsunlessyoureactuallydiscussingabbreviationsinthepaperandifyoufindthatyoudoneedtouseonetosavespacebecausethetermitrepresentsoccurswithconsiderablefrequencymakesurethatyoudefineitonfirstuse.Allofthiscarefulcommunicationaddsuptobeingaconscientiouswriterwhoisassensitivetotheneedsofhisorherreaderasyoureditingworkaimstomaketheauthorswhosewritingyouproofread.Beingsensitiveandconscientiousisespeciallyimportantinthecommentsyouofferasaproofreaderhoweverbecauseyouarepresentingtheauthorwithoneofthemostunwelcomeifparadoxicallyusefulformsofcommunicationawritercanexperienceseriousanddetailedcriticismofhisorherownwriting.Yestheauthorhasrequestedandispayingforthiscriticismyesyouareperformingavaluableserviceandyesthearticleisandwillbefarbetterforyoureffortsbutnoneofthatnecessarilysoftenstheblowespeciallyifapaperisreturnedasmanyofthemarewithasignificantnumberofchangesaswellassuggestionsforfurtherrevisions.Soyourcommentsshouldperformtheroleofcustomerserviceaswellasaddressingthepracticalconcernsthatarisewhileproofreadingwhichdoesntmeanthatyoushouldflattertheauthororbedishonestinyourcommentaryneitherhaveanyplaceinprofessionalproofreadingnorwilltheyserveyouortheauthorwellbutyoushouldtreatboththeauthorandhisorherideaswiththeutmostrespect.ItshardlyworthdenyingthatthiswillbedifficultattimesbecauseitwouldtakeasaintorverythickskinnottofeelfrustrationwhenforcedtoreadandimproveapoorlywrittenpaperwithaweakargumentdullideasinaccuratequotationsCHAPTER7 340incomprehensibletranslationsjumbledandincompletereferencesinconsistentdataandformatsandaheavilybiassedvoicethatmakesyoucringe.Thankfullysuchanextremesituationisrarebutyespapersthattryingreallydoexistandaperspectivethatlooksuponeveryauthorasequalintheefforttoproduceavaluableinformativeandpublishablepieceofscholarlywritingwillseeyouthroughmostarticles.Asyourereadingyourowncommentstrytoanticipatehowwhatyousayandhowyousayitmightbereceivedbytheauthoraskingyourselfhowyourwordsmightaffectyouwereyouintheauthorsplacecanbehelpful.Ifyouthinkthatanythingcouldbeexpressedinakinderormorediplomaticwayreworditifyoubelievethatanythingunessentialmightbebetterleftunsaidremoveitifyoususpectthatalittlemoreexplanationorclarificationmightshineabetterlightonamatteraddit.Theauthorwontthankyouforignoringproblemsbutaddressingthemtactfullywithagenerousspiritwillalmostalwaysengenderappreciationanditwillalsoencourageabetterunderstandingofwhatyourecommunicating.Intellectualgenerosityregardingtheauthorwillalsohelppreventyoufromjumpingtoconclusionsandjudgingtooquicklyandasyourereadingthroughyourcommentswiththatapproachfreshinyourmindwatchcarefullyforanyplaceswhereyoumighthavebeenguiltyofsuchhastydecisionsinyourfirstreadthroughthepaper.Verylikelytherewillbeatleastafewsentencesinwhichtheauthorsmeaningwassomewhatobscureandforcedyoutomakesignificantrevisionstothelanguageinordertoclarifyandthusatleasttosomedegreedeterminetheirmeaningsoaskyourselfifyoureabsolutelycertainthatyourunderstandingofsuchsentencescorrespondswithwhattheauthorintended.ArethereotherpossiblemeaningsthatyouhadntinitiallyconsideredBythispointyouwillhavedigestedthearticlemorethoroughlyandwillbebetterabletospeculateonwhattheauthormighthavemeantandbetterabletootoconveythatCHAPTER7 341meaningusingtheauthorsowncustomarymodesofexpressioninrelationtotheoverallargumentofthepaper.Youmaywellbeabletoresolvelanguageproblemsforwhichyoucouldprovideonlyaqueryoranacknowledgementofconfusioninitiallyorcomeupwithmuchsimplersolutionstoformattingissuesyoumaydecidethatyoureallyshouldmovethosetablestothecorrectpositionorthatyoushouldnothavemovedthematall.Ifyouhavecarefullycommentedonthepoliciesandpracticesyouusedasyouworkedthroughthedocumentthefirsttimeyourcommentswillguideyoutothemattersofgreatestconcernandyoucaneasilycompletefurthereditingofthedocumentwhileyoureeditingyourcomments.Inadditioniftherearepartsofthearticlethatwereparticularlyproblematicasyoufirstworkedthroughthedocumenttheabstractquotationsreferencesandtablesaregoodexamplesyoumayalsowanttotakeaspeciallookatthemandmakeanyfinalimprovementstotheworkingfileswhileyouhavethechance.Thiswontbeyourlastopportunitytomakechangesofcoursebutifyoureplanningtoreturnbothtrackedandcleanversionstotheauthoritwillbeyourlastchancetomakethechangestooneratherthantwodocumentssoeverythingthatcanbefinalisedatthisstageshouldbe.7.2CreatingandProofreadingtheCleanVersionbesidetheTrackedVersionAsImentionedabovemanyproofreadingservicesandauthorswillwantacleanversionoftheeditedarticleaswellasatrackedversionbutthatisnottheonlyreasontoproduceandproofreadacleancopy.Acleancopymuchlikeacleanprintversionofadocumentshowstheresultsofyourworkinamuchclearerformatthantheworkingfilesclutteredwithtrackedchangesastheyusuallyarecando.ItisforinstanceincrediblydifficulttocheckpunctuationeffectivelyinafileinCHAPTER7 342whichchangeshavebeentrackedespeciallyinheavilyrevisedsectionsofapaperpreciselywherepunctuationislikelytohaveundergonesignificantchangesaswell.Extraandmissingspacesarealsonotoriouslytrickytodetectamongtrackedchangesinapaperandnotonlysmallcharacterspacesbutalsolinespacesaroundheadingsbetweenparagraphsandaboveandbelowtablesandfigures.Whentheselargerspacesareaddedordeletedthetrackingfunctionwillshowaverticallineinthemarginbutitwontnecessarilyaddorremovethespacesonthescreensoonlybylookingatacleancopycantheproofreaderactuallyseeifthechangeshavebeeneffectiveincreatingaclearanduniformpresentation.UsingtheShowHideformattingandShowMarkupbuttonsinWordcanhelpwiththedetectionofspacingandpunctuationinthetrackedversionhoweverseeSection1.3.1aboveforadviceonusingboth.InadditionavarietyofformattingproblemscancreepintoWorddocumentsespeciallyiftheyuseaconsiderableamountofautomaticformattingwhentheyareeditedandcopiedtoacleanversionwhichtheauthormaydoevenifyoudonottheseincludepartsofthepaperspontaneouslyshiftingtheirpositionsthesizeandrulesoftableschangingfontsandlinespacingalteringinthemiddleofthetextmarginsgrowingwiderormorenarrowandfiguresorchunksoftextbecomingfixedinplace.Theseproblemsareusuallynotalwayspresentinsomewayintheworkingfileslurkinginwaitasitweretocreatecomplicationssorevealingandresolvingtheminacleanversionofthefilesisanecessarypartofpreparingthearticleforpublicationlookingbacktotheauthorsoriginalfiletochecktheformattingtheremayprovehelpfulaswell.FinallyinaworkingfilewherebothdeletionsandadditionsareretaineditisalmostimpossibletouseWordssearchfunctiontolocateforreconsiderationallinstancesofaproblematictermorphrasethathasundergonerevisionsbecauseeverypossibleorderinwhichthecharactersoriginaldeletedandaddedmightappearaftereditinghastobeimaginedandthensoughtforseparately.CHAPTER7 343Therearethenmanyreasonstoproduceanduseacleancopybesideatrackedversionforthefinalstageofproofreadinganacademicorscientificarticleandbothtrackedandcleanversionscanbecreatedfromyourworkingfilesofanarticlethroughasimpleprocess.UsingthefirstexamplefromthefilestructureshowninAppendixItheJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WFIleftyouwithinSection1.2abovethestepsare1.SavetheworkingfileunderthesamenameyouvebeenusingwhileproofreadingJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WFassoonasyouvefinishededitingitandthenbackitup.Thisprovidesyouwithacopyofyourworkuptothatpointtofallbackonifsomethinggoeswrongduringtherenamingandcopyingprocesses.2.SavetheworkingfileunderanewnameidentifyingitasthetrackeddocumentJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_tracked_versiontakingcarenottosaveitovertopoftheworkingfilebymistake.Iveneverencounteredanyproblemsinthisstagebecausethefilesareexactlythesameandtherearentanyopportunitiesforglitchesbuttobeabsolutelysurethatallisasitshouldbecheckthewordcountandnumberofcommentsinthenewtrackedversionagainstthoseintheworkingfileobviouslythenumbersshouldtallybetweenthetwoversions.3.Onceyouvecreatedthetrackedversiontherearetwodifferentwaysofproceedingabyrenamingandresavingthetrackeddocumentasacleanversionandacceptinginthenewfileallthechangesyouvemadeandbbycopyingtheentiretrackeddocumentwithtrackchangesonandpastingitintoanewfilethatwillbecomethecleanversion.Proofreadingserviceswillsometimesrecommendoneortheothersoyoumaywanttofollowthatadviceoryoumaywanttoexperimentwithbothanddecidewhichmethodworksbestforyou.ForthefirstmethodCHAPTER7 344asimplysavethetrackedversionJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_tracked_versionunderanewnameidentifyingitasthecleandocumentJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_clean_versionandtakespecialcarenottosaveitovertopofthetrackedversionoryourworkingfile.InthisnewdocumentclickonthelittlearrowatthebottomoftheAcceptbuttoninWordsReviewmenuandchooseAcceptAllChangesinDocument.Thisshouldremovethecolouredadditionsanddeletionsproducingacleanversionoftheeditedtextwhileretainingthecommentsthoughthisprocesscanleavesomeminorchangessuchasthosetopunctuationtrackedinthecleanversion.IfthisisthecasethesechangeswillneedtobedealtwithseparatelyeitherbytheauthorortheproofreaderwhowillneedtoacceptorrejecteachoneusingtheAcceptRejectandNextbuttonsintheReviewmenuasappropriate.Forthesecondmethodbselecttheentiretextinthetrackedversionofthedocumentandcopyit.Beforeyouselectmakesurethatthetrackchangesfunctionisstillturnedoninthetrackeddocumentifitistheresultwillbeacleantextwithalldeletionsomittedandalladditionsincorporatedwhenyoupastethetextintoanewfilebutiftrackchangeshasbeenturnedoffcopyinginthiswaywillproduceanexactcopyoftheeditedtextwiththechangesstilltrackedastheyareinthetrackedversionwhichisntwhatyouwant.Whenyouselecttheentiretextcertainaspectsofthepapermaynotshowupasselectedendnotesforinstanceandsometimesthereferencelistifithasbeenconstructedviaanautomaticsystemofreferencingbutaslongasyouselectthewholeofthedocumentfrombeginningtoendeverythingshouldbesuccessfullycopied.FinallycreateanewblankdocumentinWordplacethecursoratthetopandpastetheselectedtextfromthetrackedversionintothenewCHAPTER7 345documentwhichshouldthenbesavedandnamedasthecleanversionJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_clean_version.4.Regardlessofwhichmethodyouveusedforstep3checkthewordcountandnumberofcommentsinyournewcleanversionagainstthetrackedversiontobesuretheytally.OccasionallyperhapsespeciallywhenthecleanversionhasbeenproducedviacopyingthenewdocumentcountsawordortwomoreorlessthanthedocumentitwascopiedfromwithoutanyparticularreasonforthechangeoratleastnotonethatIveyetdiscoveredbutthisrarelypresentsaproblem.Ifhoweverthecountsaredifferentbyseveralormanywordsortherearemoreorfewercommentsinthenewdocumentthaninthetrackedversionsomethinghasgonewrong.Discardthedocumentandrepeattheprocessyouusedortrythealternatemethodtoseeifyouobtainbetterresults.Ifeitheroneofthecountsisstilloffyoullneedtosearchforthereason.Forexampleifthewordcountislowerinthenewdocumentperhapsyoumissedselectingsomethingatthetoporbottomofthepaperwhilecopyingifontheotherhandthewordcountinthenewdocumentishigherperhapssomethingdeletedinthetrackedversiondidntregisterasadeletionwhenyoucopiedthetextoracceptedallchanges.IfthenumberofcommentsinthenewdocumentistheproblemitmaybethattheprogramduplicatedacommentwhileacceptingthechangesorcopyingthetextorperhapsitdeletedoneIvehadbothhappenandalthoughIcantexplainexactlywhyineithercasewhenacommentislostincopyingitsusuallythecasethatitwasmistakenlyattachedonlytotextmarkedfordeletionandwasdeletedalongwiththattextthisdoesntalwayshappeninsuchcasesbutitsagoodreminderoftheimportanceofselectingthetexttowhichcommentsareattachedwithcare.CommentsplacedrightattheendofapageinthetrackedversionorassociatedwithanCHAPTER7 346CHAPTER7in-textreferencecreatedthroughanautomaticreferencingsystemarealsosusceptibletosuchchanges.Inanycaseitusuallyproveseasytodiscoverduplicatedandmissingcommentsandtheformercansimplybedeletedfromthenewfilewhilethelattercanbecopiedfromthetrackedversiontotheirproperpositionsinthenewdocument.Missingoradditionalwordswithinthetextofthepapercanbeagooddealmoredifficulttoidentifyandyoumaynotbeabletodosountilyouactuallyreadthroughthecleanversionbutdoyourbest.5.Scanthroughthenewdocumenttoensurethatallelementsofthetrackedversionhavebeenretainedandintheirproperpositionsworkinginasplitscreenmodeorontwoscreenswiththetrackedversionbesidethenewcleanversionisoftenthebestapproachforthistask.Youneedntworryaboutanextraormissinglinespaceorotherminorissuesatthispointyoucanifyouwishofcoursebuttheideaistobesurethatyouhavetheentirepaperwithitspartsintheirproperorder.Ifchunksoftextthatyoumovedwhenproofreadinghavenotbeenrepositionedinthenewdocumentcheckyourworkinthetrackedversionandifanythingseemssuspectthererejectingyourchangesandredoingthemisagoodidea.Whetherthetrackedversionrequirescorrectionornotyouwillneedtomakethenecessarychangesinthecleanversionwithouttrackingthechangesbutiftherearemanyproblemswithtextyoumovedorsimplywiththeorderofpartsinthenewfileyoumaywanttofixtheminthetrackedversiononlyandcreateanewandhopefullymoresuccessfulcleanversionperhapsviathemethodyoudidnotuseinthefirstinstance.Sometimesautomaticallyproducedendnotesandreferencelistscanaffectthearrangementofitemsoneithersideofthemduringcopyingsoselectingproblematicsectionsindividuallyandpastingthemintothedesiredpositioncanbeagoodsolution.Trytoresolve 347CHAPTER7allplacementproblemsandiftheresanythingyoureunabletofixafterrepeatedeffortsusingdifferenttechniquesexplainittotheauthorinacommentensuringthatyouincludethecommentinboththetrackedandcleanversionsofthearticle.Asmuchashumanlypossiblebothversionsshouldbeexactlythesamewiththesingleexceptionofonedisplayingthetrackedchanges.6.Onceyouresatisfiedthatthenewcopyofthearticleisanaccurateandacceptablecleanversionofthetrackeddocumentsavethenewfileagainandthenbackupboththetrackedandthecleanversionsofthedocumentonyourexternaldrive.7.RepeatthefirstsixstepsforeachadditionalworkingfileassociatedwiththepapertocreatetrackedandcleanversionsofallpartsofthearticleseeAppendixIforsomeexamplesoffilenames.Withthecleanversionofallrelevantfilesestablishedyourereadytobeginthefinalproofreading.Theprocessisessentiallythesameasthatyouconductedwhiletrackingchangesintheworkingfilessoyoullbelookingforthesamekindsoferrorsandproblemsandtryingtomakethesameaspectsaccurateandconsistent.Therewillorshouldbefarlesstodosometimesverylittleindeedbecausethemajorityofthemajordecisionsandrevisionshavealreadybeenmade.Youshouldhoweverreadthetextinrelationtoyourcommentsafinalwayofcheckinghowhelpfulandeffectiveyourcommentsareandwatchcarefullyespeciallyinsectionswhereyouhadtomakemanychangesforanyerrorsyoumayhaveintroducedaswellasforthoseyoumayhavemissed.Youmayevenwanttorethinksomeofyourpoliciesorstrategiessomewhatorrephrasesomeofthespotsyouhadtorewordinitiallyorperhapsevenimprovesomesentencesyoudidntchangeatallinyourfirstrunthroughthetextbecausereadingmorequickly 348CHAPTER7throughacleanandcorrectedversioncanrevealdifferentthingsthanaslowsloginwhichyouagoniseovereverysentencecommaandreferencedoesandsentencesthatseemedpassablewhensetbesidepooronesoccasionallybecomepoorthemselveswhenthosearoundthemhavebeenrevised.Dontneglectthereferencestablesorfiguressimplybecauseyouvealreadygonethroughthemwiththeproverbialfine-toothedcombthecomplexformatspunctuationandtechnicalinformationofsuchpartsmakethemparticularlypronetooversightsnewerrorsandglitchessotheytooneedacarefulcheck.Theabstractshouldideallybeperfectionitselforasneartoitascanbehadandanyotherprominentelementsofthepapersuchasthetitleheadingsandsubheadingsaswellastheheadingsoftablesandthecaptionslegendsoffiguresshouldbegivenalittleextratimeandcaretoensureconsistentusagepatternswhereappropriateeffectivedistinctionwhenneededandwordingthatisclearconciseandaccuratelyandadequatelydescriptive.Everychangeyoumakeatthispointmustbeenteredinbothtrackedandcleanversionswithtrackchangesoninthetrackedversionandoffinthecleanonesothatthetworemainperfectlymatched.Althoughthisdoubledworkcanbefacilitatedbycopyingtextbetweenthetwofilestoensurethatthewordingineachisidenticaltothatintheotheritisstilladelicateandsomewhatdangerousprocessbecauseitissurprisinglyeasyasyouworkquicklythroughapapertoomitchangingsomethinginthetextorinacommentofoneversionthatyouvejustchangedintheother.Sokeepaneyeonthewordcountinbothversionsandonthenumberofmarginalcommentsifyoufindyouhavetoaddorremoveanycommentsandifadiscrepancyoccurstrackdownitssourcerightawayitsmucheasiertorememberwhatyoudidaparagraphagothantothinkbackoveritallwhenyougettotheend 349CHAPTER7ofthedocumentwhentheproblemmightbecomplicatedbymorethanoneomission.Itisdifficulttoemphasisesufficientlythedegreeofcareandaccuracyrequiredwhenenteringfinalchangesinscholarlyarticles.Rememberthateverykeystrokeisapotentialopportunityforerrorandcheckeachandeverycharacteryoutypetobesureitiswhatandwhereitshouldbeinbothversions.Formorethanonereasonthenitisbesttokeepchangestoanabsoluteminimumatthisstagebutthewholeideaofafinalreadthroughthecleanversionistopolishandperfectsodontignorearealproblembecauseresolvingitistoolabourintensiveormayintroduceanewerrorinsteaddowhatneedstobedonebutdoitperfectly.SincethedeadlineisoftenloomingasyouconductthisfinalreadthroughapaperitisnotimetoloseyourworksosavebothversionsfrequentlyasyouproceedIdosoaftereveryparagraphifIfindthatasignificantnumberofchangesareneededoraftereverychangeortwoifveryfewarerequired.Ifthedocumentislongorthechangesnumerousitsalsoagoodideatobackupthesavedfileseveryfewpagesjustasyouwoulddowhileworkingthroughtheoriginaldocument.Onceyouverereadandpolishedallpartsofthearticlesavebothversionsagainandbackthemup.Thearticleisbasicallyreadytogobacktotheauthororproofreadingcompanyatthispointbutgiventheobsessivenatureofmostgoodproofreadersyoumaywanttodouble-checkafewthingsusingthesearchfunctioninthecleanversion.IfforinstancesomeaspectofapaperhasprovenparticularlyproblematictypeintotheFindandReplaceboxwhateverwordorphrasewilltakeyoutotherightspotssothatyoucantakeaquickfinallookatthemseeSection1.3.1aboveonusingFindandReplaceinWord.Thisisagoodideaforinstanceiftherehavebeenissueswithormanychangesinthehyphenationofoneormoreterms.Assumingyouwantnon-significantas 350CHAPTER7opposedtoanoriginalnonsignificantyoucansearchforthetermintheformitshouldnolongertakenonsignificanttobesureyouvenotoverlookedanyinstancesformorewide-rangingproblemswithhyphensyoucansimplysearchforahyphenwhichwillallowyoutorevieweverypossibleuseofahypheninthepaper.AsageneralruleinadditiontoanyproblemsparticulartoapaperIcheckviathissearchmethodtwodifferentaspectsofeachpaperIproofread.ForoneIcheckforcompliancewithBritishorAmericanspellingsbytypingintotheFindboxinthecleanversionthespellingvariantIdontwanttofindsodependingonthevocabularyusedinthepaperifthearticleshouldbeinBritishEnglishIwouldperhapssearchforjudgmentcenterioryzeelinggramandanynumberofotherwordsandpartsofwords.WereIproofreadinganarticleinAmericanEnglishIwoulddojusttheoppositetypinginjudgementcentreiouryseellinggrammeandsoon.Checking-iseversus-izeendingsissimplewiththisapproachaswell.SecondlyItakethisfinalopportunitytodouble-checkthatalltablesfiguresappendicesandothernumberedcomponentsofapaperarementionednumberedandpresentedincorrectnumericalorder.BysearchingfromthebeginningofthedocumentfortablefigureorfigincaseanabbreviationisusedandappendifyouuseappendixorappendicesyoullonlyfindeitherthesingularorthepluralformIcanfindeveryinstanceofeachinorderandcheckallnumberingandpositioningaswellasconsistencyofstyleintheheadingsandin-textreferencesfortheseelements.Awidevarietyofdetailsthatunderwentmorerevisionthanyoumighthavelikedinthecleanversioncanbecheckedforaccuracyviasuchsearchingconsistentspellingofauthornamesbothinthetextandthereferencelistisagoodexamplebutrememberthateverychangeneedstobeenteredinbothversionsofthefileanddontforgettokeepyoureyeonthewordcountsandnumberofcommentsto 351CHAPTER7detectanydiscrepanciesthatmayarisebetweenthetwoversions.Saveandbackupboththecleanandtrackedversionsofallfileswhenyouredone.Finallyaquickscrollthroughthefinishedcleanversiontomakesureeverythinglooksgoodonthepageiswiseespeciallyifyouvemadequiteafewchangesinthecleanversionthatmighthaveshiftedthepositionoftextandotherelementsofthepaper.CheckforconsistentparagraphspacingandindentationinthereferencelistaswellastherunningtextforcorrectlinespacingthroughoutthearticleandespeciallyaroundheadingsandembeddedtablesandfigureswherethespacingshouldbeconsistentforsimilarmaterialbutperhapsdistinctivefordifferentmaterialforfootnotesthatmayhavebeenpartiallylostatleastinappearanceduetothetextshiftingduringeditingseeSection3.1.4aboveforadviceonhowtofixthisproblemfortablesandfiguresbrokenovermorethanonepagewhentheywouldbebetterontheirownfreshpagesandforanyotherkindofunattractiveorinconsistentaspectofthearticlefromavisualperspective.Anymisnumberingofsectionsoverlookedduringtheproofreadingprocessandanyremaininginconsistenciesorlackofappropriatedistinctioninthestylesandformatsofheadingsandsubheadingswillstandoutforyouatthispointinthecleanversionjustastheywillforaneditorsotakeamomenttolookthemovercarefully.Anothergoodideaisafinalcheckagainsttheguidelinesifthereareanytoensurethatallpartsofthearticleareinanappropriateorderandthatallpagesarecorrectlynumberedwithappropriaterunningheadsifrequired.Rememberthatanyfinalchangesnomatterhowsmallshouldbeenteredinbothversionsofthedocumentandthewordcountandthenumberofcommentsifyouchangetheseatthislatestageshouldbecomparedbetweenthetwo.Whenyouredonesavebothversionsofallfilesonelasttimebackthemupclosethemandthenreopenthemforaquick 352CHAPTER7lastlookoccasionallyproblemsdontshowupuntilfilesarereopenedbutthisisrare.Providedeverythingstilllooksasitshoulditstimetosmileyourereadytosendthearticlebacktotheauthor.7.3ReturningtheCleanandTrackedFilestotheAuthorThereislittletosayaboutthisstageoftheproofreadinggamebutitisalwaysimportanttorememberthatwhetheryoureworkingdirectlyfortheauthororforaproofreadingcompanywhodealswiththeauthorandpassesthejobalongtoyouyoureservingacustomerwhosesatisfactionwithyourworkisessentialtoyoursuccessasafreelanceproofreader.Thequalityofyourworkwillbetheprimarymeansofachievingthissatisfactionbutclearcommunicationisvitalaswellanauthorwhounderstandsexactlywhatyouvedoneinhisorherarticlebecauseyouveexplainedyouractionsandthereasoningbehindthemislikelytobeahappiercustomerthanonewhoremainsmystifiedevenbyfarfewerchanges.IfyoureworkingforaproofreadingservicethereareusuallynoorveryfewopportunitiestocommunicatedirectlywiththeauthorbeyondyourworkinhisorherpapersothemarginalcommentsyouofferinthearticlemaybeyouronlyexplanationsofyourpracticesandprocedureswhichisoneofthereasonswhyIveemphasisedtheneedforclearanddetailedcommentarywhenmakingchangesparticularlysignificantorpotentiallyconfusingones.Anyproblemsremaininginthepaperoranyspecialchallengesassociatedwithitshouldcertainlybementionedinsuchcommentsiftheyarenotincludedinaseparateletterorcommentsfileseethefollowingparagraphandifthereisanythingyouthinkthecompanyforwhichyouworkshouldknowaboutthejobsometrickyproblemswithspecialformattingforinstanceorrepeatedglitcheswhenthefilesarereopenedthatmayreoccurandworry 353CHAPTER7theauthoritcanbehelpfultosharethatinformationatthispointinsteadofwaitinguntiltheauthorcontactsthecompanywithaqueryorcomplaint.Ifontheotherhandyoureworkingdirectlyfortheauthoracoveringletterorcommentsfileisagoodideaandyoumaywanttoincludeonefortheauthorevenifyouareworkingforaserviceespeciallyifyouhavegeneralorlengthycommentstomakebecausethesetendtobemoreaccessibleinaseparatedocumentthanasmarginalcomments.ThislettercantaketheformoftheemailmessageaccompanyingtheediteddocumentswhenyoureturnthembutitisbestasaseparateWorddocumentasIvesuggestedinSection1.2abovewhereIhavecalledsuchafileJones_StructuralAnalysis_coveringletteryoucanstartthisfilewhenyoufirstmakeyourworkingfileofthearticleandthenaddcommentsandqueriesgraduallyasyouproofread.Thatwayyoullonlyneedtocompleteandpolishtheletterbeforeyousendittotheauthor.ThelettershouldideallybeginonacordialnotesomethinglikeIappreciatedtheopportunitytoproofreadyourarticlewhichIfoundveryinterestingwouldworkandendbyencouragingtheauthortocontactyouwithanyquestionsorconcernsheorshemayhavewhilereadingyourcommentsbothmarginalandintheletterandcompletingthefinaleditsonthepaper.Evenifyoureworkingforaproofreadingserviceanddontnormallyhavedirectcontactwithauthorssuchaninvitationisusuallyappropriatebutdocheckifyoureunsureandtheservicecansimplypassmessagesbetweentheauthorandtheproofreaderiftheyarentabletoshareemailaddresses.Thedocumentmightbequiteformalstructuredasaletterforinstanceandusingfullsentencesoritmightberelativelyinformalandwrittenaspoint-formnotes.Eitherwayitmustbeabsolutelyclearandexplaintothebestofyourabilityanymajorproblemsunresolvedissuesorpotentiallyconfusingmatters 354CHAPTER7inthearticleandyourcomments.Itcanalsosummarisethemainpoliciesproceduresandstylesyouveusedinthepaperanditssupplementarymaterials.Thislettercanthenbeattachedalongwiththetrackedandcleanversionsofallfilesassociatedwiththearticletotheemailmessageyouusetoreturnthedocuments.Thismessageshouldbrieflyexplainwhateachfileisthisisespeciallynecessaryiftherenamingofthefilesandthereturnofbothtrackedandcleanversionswasnotdiscussedorestablishedwhenyoureceivedthejoborifyoucreatedanynewfilesbyseparatingtablesorfiguresforinstancefromthemainarticle.OnceIvesentthemessageIusuallygototheSentmailboxandcheckthemessagejusttobesurethatallthefilesweresuccessfullyattachedandsent.Occasionallyafilewillnotwanttoattachbutthisisrareandusuallyjustapassinganomalythatasecondattemptwillresolveiftheproblempersistshoweversharingthefilesviaadropboxisagoodoption.Manyproofreadingcompanieswillalreadyhaveadropboxandyoucancertainlysetupsuchamethodofexchangebetweenyouandyourauthorsifyoudonotworkforaservice. 355APPENDIXIAppendixIBasicStructureofFoldersandFilesforManagingProofreadingJobsMasterFolderPROOFREADINGYearFolderProofreading2014MonthFolderProofreadingJanuary2014JobFolder3Jan2014_JonesOriginalFilesJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014Jones_StructuralAnalysis_TablesFiguresJones_StructuralAnalysis_AppendicesWorkingFilesJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WFJones_StructuralAnalysis_TablesFigures_WFJones_StructuralAnalysis_Appendices_WFJones_StructuralAnalysis_coveringletterReferenceCheckFileJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_WF_asterisksTrackedFilesJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_tracked_versionJones_StructuralAnalysis_TablesFigures_tracked_versionJones_StructuralAnalysis_Appendices_tracked_versionCleanFilesJones_StructuralAnalysis_01.01.2014_clean_versionJones_StructuralAnalysis_TablesFigures_clean_versionJones_StructuralAnalysis_Appendices_clean_versionJobFolder7Jan2014_IncidenceofcancerOriginalFileIncidenceofcanceramongwomenWorkingFilesIncidenceofcanceramongwomen_WFIncidenceofcanceramongwomen_coveringletterReferenceCheckFileIncidenceofcanceramongwomen_WF_asterisksTrackedFileIncidenceofcanceramongwomen_tracked_versionCleanFileIncidenceofcanceramongwomen_clean_version 356APPENDIXIMonthFolderProofreadingFebruary2014JobFolder14Feb2014_ThomsonOriginalFileThomson_bibliography_Feb2014WorkingFileThomson_bibliography_Feb2014_WFTrackedFileThomson_bibliography_Feb2014_tracked_versionCleanFileThomson_bibliography_Feb2014_clean_versionMonthFolderProofreadingMarch2014JobFolder11Mar2014_ChartersMSSOriginalFilesChartersMSS_06.03.2014ChartersMSS_Figures_06.03.2014WorkingFilesChartersMSS_06.03.2014_WFChartersMSS_Figures_06.03.2014_WFReferenceCheckFileChartersMSS_06.03.2014_WF_asterisksTrackedFilesChartersMSS_06.03.2014_tracked_versionChartersMSS_Figures_06.03.2014_tracked_versionCleanFilesChartersMSS_06.03.2014_clean_versionChartersMSS_Figures_06.03.2014_clean_versionJobFolder13Mar2014_SalvadoreMonthFolderProofreadingApril2014JobFolder7Apr2014_Salvadore_ArticlerevisionMonthFolderProofreadingMay2014MonthFolderProofreadingJune2014MonthFolderProofreadingJuly2014MonthFolderProofreadingAugust2014MonthFolderProofreadingSeptember2014 357APPENDIXIYearFolderProofreading2015MonthFolderProofreadingJan2015JobFolder6Jan2015_SmithTaylorOriginalFileSmithTaylor_02.01.2015WorkingFileSmithTaylor_02.01.2015_WFTrackedFileSmithTaylor_02.01.2015_tracked_versionCleanFileSmithTaylor_02.01.2015_clean_versionMonthFolderProofreadingFeb2015 358APPENDIXIIAppendixIINumberedHeadingsandSubheadingsforanArticleonRomanticLiterature1.EnglishRomanticLiteratureABriefIntroduction1.1AuthorsandCritics1.2TheTraditionalCanon1.2.1WhereDidAlltheWomenGo2.ListeningforLostVoicesTheMethodology2.1TracingLostTextsPoetryandProse2.2ReadingWomensWritinginRelationtoMens2.3CopingwiththeCriticsTheProblemwithFemaleAuthors2.3.1ACaseStudyofCharlotteSmithPoetandNovelist2.4ComparingtheContemporaryPublicationofMenandWomen3.ExpecttheUnexpectedTheResultsofRereading3.1TheLiterature3.1.1Poetry3.1.2Prose3.1.2.1NovelsandShortStories3.1.2.2OtherProseGenres3.2TheLiteraryHistory3.2.1PublicationWhoWhatWhenandHowOften3.2.1.1TheMostRespectedAuthorsandTexts3.2.1.2TheMostPopularAuthorsandTexts3.2.1.3ComparingthePublicationofMenandWomen3.2.2ReceptionandInfluenceorWhoWasReadingWhom3.2.2.1TheMostQuotedandCopiedAuthorsandTexts3.2.2.2TheMostCriticisedAuthorsandTexts3.2.2.2.1AnExamplefromNatureSmithandDarwin3.2.2.3ComparingtheReceptionofMenandWomen 359APPENDIXII4.TheNewCanonofEnglishRomanticLiteratureADiscussionoftheResults4.1WomenWritersandTheirTextsAClearMajority4.1.1Poetry4.1.2Prose4.1.2.1NovelsandShortStories4.1.2.2OtherProseGenres4.2TheRealRomanticsEarlyandLate5.ConclusionsImplicationsforTeachersandLearners5.1RevisingtheTraditionalCanonWomeninTheirRightfulPlaces5.2TeachingtheNewCanonTheChallenges5.2.1SelectingAuthorsandTexts5.2.1.1SurveyCourses5.2.1.2SpecialTopicCourses5.2.2FindingtheTimeandResources5.2.2.1ReliableTextsPrimaryandSecondarySources5.2.2.2NeverEnoughTime... 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ABOUTTHISHANDBOOkOn-ScreenProofreadingAHandbookforEditorsofAcademicandScientificArticlesfocusesontheprofessionalon-screenproofreadingandeditingofscholarlypapers.TheHandbookprovidespracticaldetailedadviceontheaspectsofacademicandscientificarticlesthattendtobeparticularlychallengingforauthorsandeditorsalike.ThereaderisguidedthroughtheprocessofproofreadinganarticlefrommanagingfilestrackingchangesandaddingcommentsinMicrosoftWordtoproducingacleancopyreadyforpublicationandreturningittotheauthor.Individualchaptersexplainthepartsofascholarlyarticletheirimportanceandtheirpositionsinapaperoutlinedifferentreferencingstylesandsoundpracticesforprovidingcompleteandaccuratereferencesandquotationsdiscusslanguageandwritingstylewithinformationonspellingcapitalisationpunctuationspecialfontsnumbersvocabularydiscipline-specificterminologyjargonabbreviationssyntaxgrammarandsentenceandparagraphstructureandexaminetheeffectivepresentationandplacementofheadingstablesfigureslistsandappendices.Intendedtobebothastep-by-stepguidetotheproofreadingprocessandaninformativemanualtobeconsultedasnecessarywhenquestionsandproblemsarisethisHandbookwillbeanindispensibleaidtoproofreadersworkingpredominantlywithdigitaldocumentsinawiderangeofacademicandscientificdisciplinesincludingtheSocialPhysicalandBiologicalSciencestheHumanitiesMedicineEngineeringMathematicsEconomicsLawandManagement.2014